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Maori and the State: Crown-Māori relations in New Zealand/Aotearoa, 1950-2000
Introduction
Introduction
1. Maori are seen as constituting an ethnic group, that is ‘a group of persons bound
together by common origin and interests’: Metge, Joan, ‘Alternative Policy Patterns in Multi-racial Societies’, in Brookes, R H and Kawharu, I H (eds), Administration in New Zealand’s Multi-racial Society, Wellington, 1967, p 42.
| 2. | Ward, A Show of Justice; Harris, ‘Dancing with the State’, pp 1, 5–6; O’Malley, Vincent, Agents of Autonomy: Maori Committees in the Nineteenth Century, Wellington, 1997 (rev ed, 1998); Mangan, J A (ed), Making Imperial Mentalities: Socialisation and British Imperialism, Manchester, 1990, p 16. |
| 3. | On the 1945 Act, see Hill, State Authority, ch 8; see also Lange, Raeburn, To Promote Maori Well-Being: Tribal Committees and Executives under the Maori Social and Economic Advancement Act, 1945–1962, Wellington, Treaty of Waitangi Research Unit, 2006. |
| 4. | Durie, Mason, Te Mana, Te Kāwanatanga: The Politics of Māori Self-Determination, Auckland, 1998, p 54; Department of Maori Affairs, ‘Report of the Board of Maori Affairs, Secretary, and the Maori Trustee’, Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives (AJHR), G-9, 1960, pp 16–7; McEwen, J M, ‘Urbanisation and the Multi-racial Society’, in Brookes, R H and Kawharu, I H (eds), Administration in New Zealand’s Multi-racial Society, Wellington, 1967, p 77. |
| 5. | For the best general history coverage of the period of this book, see Belich, James, Paradise Reforged: A History of the New Zealanders from the 1880s to the Year 2000, Auckland, 2001. For the main Maori perspective on Crown–Maori relations, refer to Walker, Ranginui J, Ka Whawhai Tonu Matou: Struggle Without End, Auckland, 1990 (rev ed 2004); Harris, ‘Dancing with the State’, has in-depth coverage and an interpretation with which this book and its predecessor works generally accord. Howe, K R, Race Relations: Australia and New Zealand: A Comparative Survey 1770’s–1970’s, Wellington, 1977, has useful observations in chapter seven on relevant matters, such as Maori feeling at home in both rural marae and city community. |
| 6. | Tennant, Margaret, Review of State Authority, Indigenous Autonomy, in Australian Historical Studies, vol 37, no 127, April 2006, p 232 (for ‘disembodied entity’ and following quotes); Cullen, Michael, ‘Observations on the Role of Government’, Speech Notes, 27 August 2003, http://www.beehive.govt.nz/node/17678 [accessed 17 March 2008] (re ‘internal order’). State functions, Cullen states, ‘create markets … and establish and enforce the terms under which property rights transfer’, whether the individual citizen likes it or not. For the concept of ‘peace and good order’ and related matters, refer to my multi-volumed contributions to ‘The History of Policing in New Zealand’ series, which were published between 1986 and 1994: Policing the Colonial Frontier: The Theory and Practice of Coercive Social and Racial Control in New Zealand, 1767–1867, Wellington, 1986; The Colonial Frontier Tamed: New Zealand Policing in Transition, 1867–1886, Wellington, 1989; The Iron Hand in the Velvet Glove: The Modernisation of Policing in New Zealand, 1886–1917, Palmerston North, 1995. |
| 7. | Boast, Richard, Buying the Land, Selling the Land: Governments and Maori Land in the North Island 1865–1921, Wellington, 2008, p 17 (for ‘new tendencies in historical writing’ quote); Mitchell, Tom, ‘“Legal Gentlemen Appointed by the Federal Government”: the Canadian State, the Citizens’ Committee of 1000, and Winnipeg’s Seditious Conspiracy Trials of 1919–1920’, Labour/Le Travail, issue 53, Spring 2004, http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/llt/53/mitchell.html (par 3 for ‘was a mystery’ quote). On just how proactive the Crown can be in ensuring ‘order’ on its own terms, see Nolan, Melanie (ed), Revolution: The 1913 Great Strike in New Zealand, Christchurch, 2005. The definition of sovereignty cited here dates back to the sixteenth-century work of Jean Bodin and was most clearly elucidated in the twentieth century by Carl Schmitt: see his Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty, Cambridge Mass, 1985 (1st ed, Berlin, 1922), pp 5, 8–9. Schmitt page 297became a fascist, something which possibly says more about the implications of wielding sovereignty than about the value or otherwise of the theory. |
| 8. | Williams, Raymond, Culture and Materialism: Selected Essays, London/New York, 1980 (2005 ed), pp 37–9. |
| 9. | The term ‘race relations’, ubiquitous in New Zealand historiography and public discourse, has been much criticised for some good (and some not so good) reasons. However, attempts by sociologists, anthropologists and others to replace it by ‘ethnic relations’ or other terms have not generally succeeded, partly because the alternatives are themselves contestable. More broadly, since ‘race’ remains the normal usage in official and general discourse in New Zealand, I have used it in this book. |
| 10. | Head, Lyndsay, ‘The Pursuit of Modernity in Maori Society: The Conceptual Bases of Citizenship in the Early Colonial Period’, in Sharp, Andrew and McHugh, Paul (eds), Histories, Power and Loss: Uses of the Past – A New Zealand Commentary, Wellington, 2001, pp 97–9, 116 (for ‘law-based citizenship’ quote); Hickford, Mark, Review of State Authority, Indigenous Autonomy, in English Historical Review, vol CXXI, Issue 491, April 2006, pp 639–4; Waitangi Tribunal, Maori Electoral Option Report, Wai 413, Wellington, 1994, ch 2.1, p 2 (for ‘eminently adaptable’ quote); Muru Raupatu Marae, ‘Defining Tino Rangatiratanga’, discussion paper, 13 May 1995, section 3, reproduced in Yates, Bronwyn, ‘Striving for Tino Rangatiratanga’, in Benseman, John, Findsen, Brian and Scott, Miriama (eds), The Fourth Sector: Adult and Community Education in Aotearoa/New Zealand, Palmerston North, 1996, pp 96–7 (p 97 for ‘recurring theme’ and ‘equivalent to tino rangatiratanga’ quotes); Ladley, Andrew, ‘The Treaty and Democratic Government’, Policy Quarterly, 1(1), 2005, p 23 (for ‘degrees of autonomy’ quote); Waitangi Tribunal, The Taranaki Report: Kaupapa Tuatahi, Wai 143, Wellington, 1996, p 5 (for ‘right of indigenes’ quote); O’Regan, Hana, Ko Tahu Ko Au, Kāi Tahu Tribal Identity, Christchurch, 2001, pp 26–7 (for ‘respect the choices’ quote). In declining to attempt to prescribe how Maori should and should have expressed their own concepts, I have been guided by Maori colleagues who define rangatiratanga in terms of the varied organisational forms and collective perspectives held by indigenous people in various ways, at different times and in various spatial and tribal locations (I am particularly indebted to the late Tupoutahi Tamihana Te Winitana). Some (pakeha) critiques of my previous book have argued that rangatiratanga is not a valid concept after 1900 as, very often, other terms were used by Maori to describe their mana and their aspirations; this is to ignore my caveat that the terminology often changes but concepts remain. In the second half of the period covered by this book, the word rangatiratanga comes back into vogue within Maoridom, alongside and then largely superseding words such as mana. |
| 11. | Walsh, Allen C, More and More Maoris, Christchurch, 1971, p 44 (for ‘Being Maori’ quote); Hickford, in English Historical Review, p 640 (for ‘binary’ critique); Bargh, Maria (ed), Resistance: An Indigenous Response to Neoliberalism, Wellington, 2007, pp 17–8 (for ‘acts of resistance’ and ‘indigenous power’ quotes); Shaull, Richard, ‘Foreword’, in Freire, Paulo, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, New York, 1986 ed (Ramos trans), pp 12–3 (for ‘ever new possibilities’ quote); Weaver, John C, The Great Land Rush and the Making of the Modern World, 1650–1900, Montreal, 2003, p 139 (for ‘technology of occupation’ quote); Harding, Bruce, ‘Interview with Robin Winks: The Historian as Detective’, History Now/Te Pae Tawhito o te Wā, 7(4), November 2001. |