.jpg)
The Pamphlet Collection of Sir Robert Stout: Volume 6
I
I.
Which are the principal Sounds that can be formed with our Organs of Speech, and therefore may be expected to occur in any of the dead or living Dialects of Mankind?
On the first point, which must form the basis of the whole, we have the immense advantage that all scholars who have written on it have
page 3
arrived at results almost identically the same.* We are here still in the sphere of physical science, where facts are arranged by observation, and observation may be checked by facts so as to exclude individual impressions and national prejudice. The classification of vowels and consonants proposed by modern physiologists is, so far as general principles are concerned, exactly the same as the one contained in Sanskrit grammars composed in the fifth century before Christ, and appended to the different collections of the sacred writings of the Brahmans,—the four Vedas. These grammatical treatises, called "Prâtisâkhyas," exist in manuscript only, and have not hitherto been published. The classification established by physiologists, as the result of independent research, would receive the most striking confirmation by a translation of these writings, now more than two thousand years old. But, on their own account also, these phonetic treatises deserve to be published. Their observations are derived from a language (the Vaidik Sanskrit) which at that time was studied by means of oral tradition only, and where, in the absence of a written alphabet, the most minute differences of pronunciation bad to be watched by the ear, and to be explained and described to the pupil. The language itself, the Sanskrit of that early period, had suffered less from the influence of phonetic corruption than any tongue from which we can derive our observations; nay, the science of phonetics (Sikshâ), essential to the young theological student (who was not allowed to learn the Veda from MSS.), had been reduced to a more perfect system in the schools of the Brahmans, in the fifth
page 4
century before Christ, than has since been anywhere effected. Our notions on the early civilisation of the East are of so abstract a nature that we must expect to be startled occasionally by facts like these. But we now pass on to the general question.
* In a very able article by Professor Heise, in Hoefer's Zeitschrift für die Wissenschaft der Sprache, iv. 1. 1853, the following authorities are quoted:—
Chladni, Über die Hervorbringung der Menschlichen Sprachlaute, in Gilbert's Annalen der Physik. vol. Ixxvi. 1824.
A. J. Ribbeck, Über die Bildung der Sprachlaute. Berlin, 1848.
K. M. Rapp, Versuch einer Physiologic der Sprache. Stuttgardt, 1836.
H. E. Bindseil, Abhandlungen zur Allgcmeinen Vergleichenden Sprachlehre. Hamburg, 1838
J. Müller, Elements of Physiology. London, 1842. vol. ii. p. 1044.
W. Holder, Elements of Speech: an Essay of Inquiry into the natural Production of Letters. London, 1669__This is one of the earliest and best works on the subject.
An excellent account of the researches of the most distinguished physiologists on the human voice, and the formation of letters, is found in Ellis, "The Alphabet of Nature."—A work full of accurate observations and original thought.
Consonants and Vowels.
If we regard the human voice as a continuous stream of air, emitted as breath from the lungs and changed into vocal sound as it leaves the larynx, this stream itself, as modified by certain positions of the mouth, would represent the vowels. "The vowels," as Professor Wheatstone says, "are formed by the voice modified, but not interrupted, by the various positions of the tongue and the lips." In the consonants, on the contrary, we should have to recognise a number of stops opposing for a moment the free passage of this vocal stream. These consonantal stops, against which the waves of the vowels break themselves more or less distinctly, are produced by barriers formed by the contact of the tongue, the soft palate, the palate, the teeth, and the lips with each other.
Consonants
Gutturals, Dentals, and Labials.
According to an observation which we find already in Vaidik grant' mars, the principal consonantal stops in any language are:—
the guttural (k),
the dental (t),
the labial (p).
The pure guttural sound, without any regard as yet to its modifications (whether tenuis, media, aspirata, nasalis, semi-vocalis, or flatus), is produced by stopping the stream of sound by means of a contact between the root of the tongue and the throat, or, more correctly, the soft palate, or the velum pendulum. The throat is called the "place," the root of the tongue the "instrument," of the guttural.
The pure dental sound is produced by contact between tongue and teeth. Here the teeth are called the " place," and the tip of the tongue the "instrument."
page 5
The pure labial sound is produced by contact between the upper and lower lip; the upper lip being the "place," the lower the "instrument."
All consonants, excluding semi-vowels and sibilants or flatus, are formed by a complete contact between the active and passive organ.
Formation of the Tenuis.
If the voice is stopped sharp by the contact of the organs, so as to allow for the moment no breath or sound to escape, the consonant is called tenuis (.jpg)
), hard or surd (k, t, p).
Formation of the Media.
If the voice is stopped less abruptly, so as to allow a kind of breathing to continue after the first contact has taken place, the consonant is called media (.jpg)
), soft or sonant (g, d, b). The soft consonant does not arrest the sound at once, but allows it to be heard during a moment of resistance.
The difference between a surd and sonant consonant is best illustrated by a speaking-machine. "The sound p," as Professor Wheat-stone says, "was produced by suddenly removing the left hand from the front of the mouth, which it had previously completely stopped; the sound b, by the same action; but instead of closing the mouth completely, a very minute aperture was left, so that the sound of the reed might not be entirely stifled." This coincides fully with the description given by Mr. Ellis. "In pronouncing ba," he says, "the vowel is uttered simultaneously with the act of relieving the lips from contact, or rather before they are quite released. If we separate them before the vowel is uttered, allowing the breath to be condensed during a very brief space of time, the sound pa is heard. There is a similar distinction between ab and ap: in the former the effect of the voice remains throughout the consonant, and we may feel a slight tremor of the lips while it is being produced; in the latter the vowel, properly so called, entirely ceases before the contact is completed."
Formation of Semi-vowels.
If there is only an approach or a very slight contact between the
page 6
organs, and the voice is slightly stopped or compressed as it reaches the point of contact, the consonants are called half-consonants or semi-vowels. They are sonant like the media, owing to the process of their formation here described ('h, l, w).
At the end of words and before a tenuis the semi-vowels are frequently pronounced as a flatus, or they become evanescent. In the Dutch 'dag,' we have the nearest approach to a guttural semivowel. If a Saxon pronounces the same word, he changes the d into t, and the guttural semi-vowel into the guttural flatus aspcr, like ch in 'loch.' In other parts of Germany, the final guttural is sounded as a media or as tenuis, while in the English 'day' the guttural semi-vowel has become evanescent. The same applies to French "sou " instead of "sol," and "vaut " instead of "valet." In Sanskrit no semi-vowel is tolerated at the end of words or before a tenuis.
Professor Wheatstone's researches prove that a distinguishing mark of the semi-vowels consists in their having no corresponding mutes. This applies not only to y, r, I, but also to w and 'h. It should be remarked, however, that, in the guttural and palatal series, the semi-vowel and flatus lenis can hardly be distinguished except in theory.
Formation of Sibilants (flatus).
If there is no contact at all, and the breath passes between the two organs without being stopped, still not without giving rise to a certain friction on passing that point of contact where guttural, dental, and labial consonants are formed, we get the three sibilants, or the "winds," as they are more properly called by Hindu grammarians. These are, the pure breathing, without even a guttural modification, commonly called spiritus asper and lenis; the thick guttural flatus, as heard in "loch;" the sharp and soft s for the dentals; and the sharp and soft f for the labials. The sibilants or flatus are distinguished from all other consonants by this, that with them a breathing is really emitted, while the consonants are only so many stops which preclude the emission of vocal sound. A candle applied to the mouth will at once show the difference between the labial flatus asper, as in "find," and the consonantal stops, such as p, b, or even the labial semi-vowel, as heard in "wind." In this respect
page 7
the sibilant flatus approaches nearer to the vowels than even the semi-vowels.
As we distinguished between tenuis and media in the consonants, we must admit a twofold intonation for the flatus or the sibilants also. A flatus or sibilant cannot be modified exactly in the same manner as a consonant produced by contact; but, by an analogous process, it may become either "asper" or "lenis," rough or soft. We are best acquainted with this distinction in the primitive and unmodified breathing which necessarily precedes an initial vowel. The spiritus asper and lenis in Greek are modifications of that initial breathing which is inherent in every vowel sound at the beginning of a word or of a syllable. It comes out freely as the spiritus asper in Homer and .jpg)
, frontier, while it is tempered and to our ears hardly audible in 'Aristotle and .jpg)
, hill. In ancient languages the spiritus asper is frequently represented by the dental flatus (s), and the spiritus lenis by a semi-vowel, as, for instance, the Diganima Æolicum.
The dental flatus, as a tenuis or rather as flatus asper, is heard in sin and seal; while the media or lenis is frequently represented by the English z, as in zeal and breeze.
The sharp labial flatus is the pure f, which the Greeks could not pronounce, and which we hear in "find" and "life." The flat corresponding sound is heard in "vine" and "live." This also is a difficult letter to pronounce, and is therefore avoided by many people, or changed into b, as Scaliger said,
"Haud temere antiquas mutat Vasconia voces,
Cui nihil est aliud vivere quàm bibere."
Strictly speaking, and in accordance with our own definitions, every consonant at the end of a word, unless followed by a slight vocal exhalation such as is heard in drug, loud, sob, must become a tenuis. Now, if we take words where the final consonant is a flatus, but where, by the addition of a derivative syllable, the flatus ceases to be really final, we shall see distinctly how the flatus asper and lenis interchange. The sharp dental flatus is heard in "grass" and "grease." Here the s is really final, although an e is put at the end of grease. If we form the two verbs, to graze and to grease, we have
page 8
the corresponding flat s, the common German s. Exactly the same grammatical process applied to the labial flatus changes "life" into "live," i.e. the sharp labial flatus into the flat.
Some languages, as, for instance, Sanskrit, acknowledge none but sharp sibilants; and a media followed by a flatus is changed in Sanskrit into a tenuis.
Formation of Nasals.
If, in the three organs, a full contact takes place and the vocal breathing is stopped, not abruptly, but in the same manner as with the sonant letters, and if afterwards the vocal breathing be emitted, not through the mouth, but through the nose, we get the three full nasal consonants n., n, and m, for the guttural, dental, and labial series. A speaking-machine leaves no doubt as to the manner in which a tenuis may be changed into a narisonant letter. "M," as Professor Wheatstone says, "was heard on opening two small tubes representing the nostrils, placed between the wind-chest and the mouth, while the front of the mouth was stopped as for p."
In most cases the peculiar character of the nasal is determined by the consonant immediately following. In "ink," the n is necessarily guttural; and if we try to pronounce it as a dental or labial, we have to stop after the n, and the transition to the guttural k becomes so awkward that, even in words like to "in-cur," most people pronounce the n like a guttural. No language, as far as I know, is fond of such incongruities as a guttural n. followed by any but guttural consonants, and they generally sacrifice etymology to euphony. In English we cannot pronounce em-ty, and therefore we pronounce and write emp-ty. In the Uraon-Kol language, which is a Tamulian dialect, "enan " is I, and the possessive prefix is "in," my. But in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal we find " im-bas," my father; but "ing-kos," my child. Cicero alludes to the same where he speaks of the n adulterinum. He says, that "cum nobis " was pronounced like "cun nobis."
At the end of words and syllables, however, the three nasal sounds, guttural, dental, or labial, may occur independently; and as it is necessary to distinguish a final m from a final n (.jpg)
, bonum), it will be advisable also to do the same for a final guttural nasal, as the French
page 9
"bon," "Lundi," or the English "to sing." It is true that in most languages the final guttural nasal becomes really a double consonant, i.e. n + g, as in "sing," or n + k, as in "sink;" still, as the pronunciation on this point varies even in different parts of England, it will be necessary to provide a distinct category, and afterwards a distinct sign, for the guttural nasal.
In some languages we meet even with an initial guttural nasal, as in Tibetan "nga-rang," I myself. Whether here the initial sound is really so evanescent as to require a different sign from that which we have as the final letter in "rang," is a question which a native alone could answer. Certain it is that in the Tibetan alphabet itself both are written by the same sign, while Csoma tie Körös writes the initial guttural n by ñ, the final by ng; as "ña-rang."
| Tenues. | Mediæ. | Semi-vocales. | Flatus asperes. | sibilantes: lenes. | Nasales. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gutturales: | k (cap) | g (go) | 'h (dag) | 'h (loch) | 'h (tag) | n.(sing). |
| Dentales: | t(town) | d (do) | l (low) | s (seal) | z (zeal) | n (sin). |
| Labiales: | p(pint) | b (bring) | w (win) | f (life) | v (live) | m (sum). |
| Spiritus asper: 'or | h(hear). | |||||
| Spiritus lenis: ' (ear). |
Formation of Aspirates.
complete table of the chief consonantal sounds possible in any dialect, as follows:—
| Tenuis. | Tenuis aspir. | Media. | Media aspir. | Semi-vocales. | Flatus sibilantes. | Nasales. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Guttural: | k | kh | g | gh | 'h | 'h | 'h | n. |
| Dental: | t | th | d | dh | l | s | z | n |
| Labial: | P | ph | b | bh | w | f | v | m |
It should be remarked that in the course of time the fine distinctions between kh, gh, and 'h, between ph, bh, and f, become generally merged into one common sound. In Sanskrit only, and in some of the southern languages of India, through the influence of Sanskrit, the distinction has been maintained. Instead of Sanskrit th we find in Latin the simple t; instead of dh, the simple d, or, as a nearer approach, the f (dhuma—fumus, &c.). The etymological distinction maintained in Sanskrit between "dha," to put, to create, and " da," to give, is lost in Persian, because there the two initial sounds d and dh have become one, and the root "da" has taken to itself the meaning both of creating and giving. Whatever objections, therefore, might be raised against the anticipated representation of the tenuis and media aspirata by means of an additional h or h, they would practically apply only to a very limited sphere of languages. In Sanskrit no scholar could ever take kh for k+h, because the latter combination of sounds is grammatically impossible. In the Tamulian languages the fine distinctions introduced into their orthography have hardly found their way into the spoken dialects of the people at large.
Modifications of Gutturals and Dentals.
From what has been said before on the formation of the guttural and dental sounds, it must be clear that the exact place of contact by which they are produced can never be fixed with geometrical precision, and that by shifting this point forward or backward certain modifications will arise in the pronunciation of individuals, tribes, or nations. The point of contact between the lips is not liable to the
page 11
same changes, and the labials are, therefore, the most constant sounds in all dialects.
A. Dialectic Modifications of Gutturals and Dentals.
Where this variety of pronunciation is only in degree, without affecting the nature and real character of a guttural or dental consonant, we need not take any notice of it. Gutturals from a Semitic throat have a deeper sound than our own, and some grammarians have made a new class for them by calling them pectoral letters. The guttural flatus asper, as heard in the Swiss "ach " is deeper, and as it were more pectoral, than the usual German ch: but this is owing to a peculiarity of the organs of speech; and whatever letter might be chosen to represent this Swiss ch in a phonetic alphabet, it is certain none but a Swiss could ever pronounce it. Sanskrit grammarians sometimes regard h as formed in the chest (urasya), while they distinguish the other gutturals by the name of tongue-root letters (gihvamuliya). These refinements, however, are of no practical use; because, in dialects where the guttural sound is affected and diverted from its purer intonation, we generally find that the pure sound is lost altogether; so that the two hardly ever co-exist in the same language.
B. Specific Modifications of Gutturals and Dentals.
1. Palatals as Modifications of Gutturals.
But the place of contact of the gutturals may be pushed forward so far as to lie no longer in the throat, but in the palate. This change has taken place in almost all languages. Latin "cantus" is still "canto" in Italian, but in English "chant." In the same manner, the guttural tenuis in the Latin "vocs" (vox) has been softened in Sanskrit into the sound of the English ch, at least where it is followed by certain letters. Thus we have:
"vachmi," I speak,
but "vakshi," thou speakest,
"vakti," he speaks.
The same applies to the media. Latin "largus" is Italian "largo,"
page 12
but English "large." The Latin guttural media g in "jungo" is softened in Sanskrit into the sound of the English j. We have Sanskrit "yuga," Latin "jugum;" but in the verb we have:
yunaj + mi, I join.
yunak + shi, thou joinest.
yunak + ti, he joins.
The identity of many words in Latin and Sanskrit becomes palpable at once, if, instead of writing this modified guttural, or, as we may now call it, palatal sound, by a new type, we write it by a modified k. Sansk. "chatvar," or as some write "tschatwar," does not look like "quatuor;" but Lithuanian "keturi" and Sanskrit "katvar" speak for themselves. Sanskrit "cha" or "tscha" does not look like Latin "que;" but Greek "kε" and Sanskrit "ka" assert their relationship without disguise. Although, therefore, we are forced to admit the palatals, as a separate class, side by side with the gutturals, because most languages retain both sets and use them for distinct etymological and grammatical purposes, still it will be well to remember that the palatals are more nearly related to the gutturals than to any other class, and that in most languages the two are still interchangeable.
That the pronunciation of the palatals may vary again, like that of the gutturals, requires no explanation. Some people imagine they perceive a difference between the English palatal in "church," and the Italian palatal in "cielo," and they maintain that no Englishman can properly pronounce the Italian palatal. If so, it only proves what was said before, that slight modifications like these do never co-exist in the same language; that English has but one, and Italian but one palatal, though the two may slightly differ. But even if we invented a special letter to represent the Italian palatal, no one except an Italian would be able to pronounce it, not even for his life, as the French failed in "ceci" and "ciceri" at the time of the Sicilian Vespers. All consonants, therefore, which are no longer gutturals, and not yet dentals, should be called palatals. That palatals have again a tendency to become dentals, may be seen from words like ".jpg)
" instead of "katvaras" or "keturi."
Frequently the pronunciation of the palatals becomes so broad that they seem, and in some cases really arc, double consonants. Some people pronounce "church " (kirk) as if it were written "tchurtch." If this pronunciation becomes sanctioned, and we have to deal with a language which has as yet no historical orthography, it must be left to the ear of the missionary to determine whether he hears distinctly two consonants, or one only though pronounced rather fully and broadly. If he hears distinctly the two sounds t + ch, or t+sh, he should write both, particularly if in the same language there exists another series of letters with the simple palatal sound. This is the case, for instance, in Tibetan and its numerous dialects. If, therefore, the missionary has to deal with a Bhotîya dialect, which has not yet been fixed by the Tibetan alphabet, the simple palatals should be kept distinct from the compound palatals, tsh, dsh, &c. In the literary language of Tibet, where the Sanskrit alphabet has been adopted, an artificial distinction has been introduced, and the compound sounds, usually transcribed as tsh, tshh, and dsh, are distinguished by a diacritical mark at the top from the simple palatals, the sound of which is described as like the English ch in church, and j in join. How this artificial distinction should be rendered in transliteration, will have to be considered under III. b. If we have once the palatal tenuis, the same modifications as those described above give us the palatal media, the two aspiratæ, the nasal, the semi-vowel, and the sibilant.
The sound of the tenuis is given in the English "church;" of the media, in "to join." The semi-vowel we have in the pronunciation of "yea." The nasal again hardly exists by itself, but only if followed by palatals. We have it in "inch" and "injure." Where the Spaniards use an ñ, they write a double by a simple sound; for the sound is the nasal followed by the corresponding semi-vowel, ny. The French express the same sound in a different manner. The French "besogne," if it occurred in an African language, would have to be expressed by the missionary as "bezonye."
As to the palatal flatus or sibilant, we must distinguish again between its sharp and flat sound. The sharp sound is heard in "sharp," or French "chose." The flat sound is less known in English, but of frequent occurrence in French; such as "je," and "joli," very
page 14
different from the English "jolly." It is a sound of frequent occurrence in African languages. * The difference between the hard and soft palatal flatus may best be illustrated by a reference to the modern languages of Europe. A guttural tenuis in Latin becomes a palatal tenuis in English, and a palatal sibilant in French; cantus, the chant, le chant. Here the initial sibilant in French is a tenuis or asper like the English sh in "she." A guttural media in Latin becomes a palatal media in English, and a palatal sibilant in French; elegia, the elegy, l'élégie. Here the sibilant sound of the French g is the same as in "genou" or "je;" it is the soft palatal sibilant, sometimes expressed in English by s, as in erasure and pleasure.
It should be remarked, however, that the proper, and not yet assibilated sound of the palatal flatus asper is not the French ch as heard in "Chine," but rather the German ch in "China," "mädchen," "ich," " könig." Both sounds are palatal according to our definition of this term; but the German might be called the simple, the French the assibilated palatal flatus. Ellis calls the former the "whispered guttural sibilant," and remarks that it is generally preceded by a vowel of the i class. The corresponding "spoken consonant" or the flatus lenis, was discovered by Ellis in such words as "kön'ge."
2. Linguals as Modifications of Dentals.
* See the Rev. Dr. Krapf's "Outline of the Elements of the Kisuáheh Language:" Tübingen, 1850, page 23.
mere mistranslation of the Sanskrit name "Murddhanya." * These linguals vary again in the degree of obtuseness imparted to them in different dialects, and which evades graphical representation. All letters that cease to be pure dentals by shifting the point of contact backward from the teeth, must be considered as linguals; and many languages, Semitic as well as Arian, use them for distinct etymological purposes. As with the palatals, we have with the linguals also a complete set of modified consonants. The lingual tenuis, tenuis aspirata, media, media aspirata, and nasal have no corresponding sounds in English, because, as we shall see, the English organ has modified the dental sounds by a forward and not by a backward movement. The semi-vowel is the lingual r, produced by a vibration of the curled tongue in which the Italians and Scotch excel, and which we find it difficult to imitate. The English and the German r become mostly guttural, while, on the contrary, the Semitic guttural semi-vowel, 'hain, takes frequently the sound of a guttural r. It might be advisable to distinguish between a guttural and a lingual r; but most organs can only pronounce either the one or the other, and the two therefore seldom co-exist in the same dialect.The lingual sibilant is a sound peculiar to the Sanskrit; and as, particularly in modern Indian dialects, it interchanges with the guttural tenuis aspirata, its pronunciation must have partaken of a certain guttural flatus.
* "Murddhanya," being derived from "murddhan," head or top, was a technical name given to these letters, because their place was the top or highest point in the dome of the palate, the .jpg)
of the Greeks. The proper translation would have been "Cacuminals." "Cerebrals " is wrong in every respect; for no letter is pronounced by means of the brain, nor docs "murddhan" mean brain. It is not advisable to retain this name, even as a technical term, after it has been proved to owe its origin to a mere mistranslation. It is a word which has given rise to confused ideas on the nature of the lingual letters, and which ought therefore to be discarded from philological treatises, though the mistranslation and its cause have hitherto failed to attract the observation of either Sanskrit or comparative grammarians
difference in the pronunciation of t and th, or d and dh. The German "thun," to do, the French " théologie," are pronounced as if they were written "tun," " téologie." In the Low German and Scandinavian dialects, however, the aspiration of the t and d (according to Grimm's law, an organic aspiration) has been preserved to a certain extent, only the consonantal contact by which they are produced takes place no longer between the tongue and the inside of the teeth, but is pushed forward so as to lie really between the tongue and the edge of the teeth. This position of the organs produces the two well-known continuous sounds of th, in "think" and "though." There is a distinct Runic letter to express them, .jpg)
and in later MSS. a graphical distinction is introduced between .jpg)
and đ, tenuis and media. The difference between the tenuis and media is brought out most distinctly by the same experiment which was tried for f and v. (page 7.). We have the tenuis in "breath," but it is changed into media in "to breathe."We may consider these two sounds as dialectical varieties of the real th and dh, which existed in Sanskrit, but which, like most aspirated sonant and surd consonants, have since become extinct. To many people the pronunciation of the English th is an impossibility; and in no dialect, except perhaps the Irish, does the English pronunciation of the th coexist with the pure and simple pronunciation of th and dh. Still, as their sound is very characteristic, it might be desirable to mark it also in writing, so that even those who do not know the peculiar accent and pronunciation of a language, should be able to distinguish by the eye the English sound of the th from the usual th and dh.
The principal consonantal sounds, without any regard as yet to their graphic representation, may now be classified and defined as follows. Where possible, the approximate sound is indicated by English words.
| a. Tenuis. | b. Tenuis aspirata | c. Media. | d. Media asplrata. | e. Nasalia. | f. Semivocalis. | g. Flatut (sibilans). | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Gutturals | kite | gate | sing | dag (.Dutch) | loch, tag | ||
| 2. Palatals | church | join | Fr. signe | yet | sharp, Fr.je. | ||
| 3. Dentals | tan | (breath) | dock | (breathe) | not | let | grass, graze. |
| 4. Linguals | run | ||||||
| 5. Labials | pan | bed | man | will | lite, live. |
Vowels.
The Physiological Scale of Vowels.
If we recall the process by which the semi-vowels were formed in the three principal classes, and if, instead of stopping the vocal sound by means of that slight remnant of consonantal contact or convergence, which characterized the formation of the semi-vowels, we allow the full volume of breath to pass over the point of contact and there to vibrate and sound, we get three pure vowel sounds, guttural, palatal, and dental, which can best be expressed by the Italian A, I, U, as heard in psalm, ravine, flute.
Formation of the Labial Vowel.
Let us pronounce the labial semi-vowel, the English w in woe, and, instead of stopping the vocal sound as it approaches the labial point of contact, emit it freely through the rounded aperture of the lips, and we have the vowel u. Here also the experiment of the candle will elucidate the process that takes place, but of which we are hardly conscious. The mere semi-vowel w, not followed by any vowel, should not produce any disturbance in the flame; at least not more than might be occasioned by the motion of the lips, which is the same for all consonants. The labial flatus, f, on the contrary, will disturb the flame considerably, and the vowel u may extinguish it.
Formation of the Palatal Vowel.
The same process which changes w into u, changes the guttural semi-vowel 'h into a, and the palatal semi-vowel y into i. Let us pronounce the y in yea without any vowel after it, and it only requires the removal of that stoppage of sound which takes place between tongue and palate, in order to allow the vowel i, as in ravine, to be heard distinctly.
Formation of the Guttural Vowel.
Let us pronounce the guttural semi-vowel as heard in the Dutch dag or the Hebrew 'hain, and, if we try to change this semi-vowel gradually into the vowel a, we feel that what we effect is merely the removal of that stoppage which in the formation of the semi-vowel takes place at the very point of guttural contact.
The vowels, as was said before, are formed by the voice modified, but not interrupted, by the various positions of the tongue and the lips. "Their differences depend," as Professor Wheatstone adds, "on the proportions between the aperture of the lips and the internal cavity of the mouth, which is altered by the different elevations of the tongue."
Succession of Vowels, natural and artificial.
The organic succession of vowel sounds is the same as for consonants,—guttural, palatal, labial, a, i, u. The succession of vowel sounds produced by the gradual lengthening of a cylindrical tube joined to a reed organ-pipe, as described by Professor Willis*, is an interesting experiment as to the scale of vowels in the abstract. It gives, or, at least, is reported to give,
| i, | e, | a, | aw, | o, | u. |
| beat, | bait, | bath, | bought, | boat, | boot. |
But as these pipes are round and regular, while the construction of the pipe formed by larynx, throat, palate, jaws, and lips is not, the succession of vowels given by these pipes cannot be expected to correspond with the local succession of vowels as formed by the organs of speech.
* Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. iii. paper 10. 1828-29.
to the formation of the vowels as the contraction of the throat, the scale of vowels is a different one. Here the aperture of the lips is largest if we pronounce the a; and it gradually decreases as we go on to the e, i, o, and u.i = III. 1. e = IV. 2. a= V. 3. o = II. 4. u = I. 5.
It has been remarked by Professor Purkinje, that the conditions for the formation of some of the vowels, particularly of a and e, as heard in far and name, have not been quite correctly stated by Kempelen. The production of both these sounds depends principally on the form of the cavity of the throat between the root of the tongue and the larynx; in both cases this space is large, but largest in the pronunciation of e. The size of the opening of the mouth is the same in the two cases; not different, as Kempelen states. The position which he ascribes to the lips in pronouncing o is also unnecessary. *
The experiments of Professor Willis show that, if we look on the instrument by which the vowels are formed as a vibrating membranous tongue, with one tube prefixed, and another added below the tongue, the shortest length of the tube gives i; the longest, u; and an intermediate one, a. But as the human organ of speech is not a regular tube, we must insist on this, that in the mouth the shortest length is indicated by the point of palatal contact, the longest by the point of labial, and the intermediate by the point of guttural contact; and that here, by the simultaneous operation of the guttural and labial aperture, the vowels i, u, and a are formed.
The Lingual and Dental Vowels.
* Sec J. Müller, Elements of Physiology, p. 1047.
i, and w into u, become ri, li, or rĕ and lĕ. At least these sounds ri and li, approach as near to the original value of the Indian vowels as with our alphabet we can express it. According to their origin, they may be described as r and I opened and vocalised.Unmodified Vowels.
If we attempt in singing to pronounce no particular vowel, we still hear the vowel-sound of the Italian a. This vowel expresses the quality of the musical vibrations emitted from the human larynx and naturally modified by a reverberation of the palate. Hut if we arrest the vibrations before they pass the guttural point of contact—if, either in a whispered or a vocalised shape, we emit the voice without allowing it to strike against any part of the mouth—we hear the unmodified and primitive sound as in but, bird, lull. It is the sound which, in Professor Willis's experiments, "seems to be the natural vowel of the reed," or, according to Mr. Ellis, "the voice in its least modified form." We hear it also if we take the larynx of a dead body, and blow through it while compressing the chordæ vocales.
In these experiments it is impossible to distinguish more than one sound; and most people admit but one unmodified vowel in English. According to Sir John Herschell, there is no difference in the vowels of the words spurt, assert, dirt, virtue, dove, double, blood. Mr. Ellis considers the u in cur as the corresponding long vowel. Other writers, however, as Sheridan and Smart, distinguish between the sounds of bird and work, of whirl'd and world; and in some languages this difference requires to be expressed. It is a very delicate difference, but may be accounted for by a slight palatal and labial pressure, by which this obscure sound is affected after having escaped the guttural reverberation.
In English almost every vowel is liable to be absorbed by this obscure sound; as beggar, offer, bird, work, but. It is sometimes pronounced between two consonants, though not expressed in writing; as el-m, mar-sh, schis-m, rhyth-m. Here it is the breath inherent in continuous consonants. In French it is the e muet, as in entendre, Londres. In German it is doubtful whether the same sound exists at all, though I think it may be heard occasionally in such words as leber, leben.
Quantity of Vowels.
All vowels may be short or long, with the exception of the unmodified breathing (Rapp's "Urlaut"), which is always short. The sound of the long a we have in psalm, messa (It.); short, in Sam.
The sound of the long i we have in neat, Italia; short, in knit.
The sound of the long u we have in fool, usarono (It.); short, in full*
The sound of ĕ we have in bird.
The sound of ŏ we have in work.
* The examples are mostly taken from Ellis, who distinguishes between the short a in messa and the stopped a in Sam; a distinction which, though essential in a theoretical analysis, does not require to be expressed in alphabetical notation.
Diphthongs.
From the organic local succession of the three simple vowels a, i, u, it follows that real compound vowels can only be formed with a, as the first and most independent vowel, for their basis. The a, on its onward passage from the throat to the aperture of the mouth, may be followed or modified by i or u. It may embrace the palatal and labial vowels, and carry them along with it without having to retrace its steps, or occasioning any stoppage, which of course would at once change the vowel into the semi-vowel. In Sanskrit, therefore, the palatal and labial vowels, if brought in immediate contact with a following a, relapse naturally into their corresponding semi-vowels, y and w, and never form the base of diphthongs. The vowels i + a, or u + a, if pronounced in quick succession, become ya and wa, but they will never coalesce into one vocal sound, because the intonation of the a lies behind that of i; the vocal flatus has to be inverted, and this inversion amounts in fact to a consonantal stoppage sufficient to change the vowels i and u into the semi-vowels y and w.
The four Bases of Diphthongs.
According to our definition of diphthongs, their basis can only be guttural; but as the guttural a may be short or long, and as the two unmodified vowels (ĕ, ŏ) lie even behind the guttural point of contact, we get really a four-fold basis for diphthong sounds. Each
page 22
of the four vowels (ăâĕŏ) being liable to a palatal or labial modification, we may on physiological grounds expect eight different compound vowels.
This can best be represented by a diagram:
.jpg)
Diphthongs with Ă as base.
If the short a is quickly followed by i and u, so that, as the Hindus say, the guttural is mixed with the palatal and labial vowels like milk and water, we get the diphthongs ai and au, pronounced as in French. They correspond in sound to the Italian e and o, and to the English sounds in sailor and home.
Diphthongs with ŏ as Base.
If the a, as the first element, retains more of its independent nature, or is long, then â + i pronounced together give the German diphthong ai, as in pie and buy; a + u give the German diphthong au, as in proud.
Diphthongs with Ă as Base.
If, instead of the short or long a, the base of the diphthong becomes ĕ, we get the combinations ei and eu, both of rare occurrence except in German, where the sound of ei (English isle), is thinner than that of ai (English ire). In eu, the two vowels are still heard very distinctly in the Italian Europa. In German they coalesce more, and almost take the sound of oy in boy.
Diphthongs with ŏ as Base.
In the diphthong oi also, the pronunciation may vary according to the degree of speed with which the i follows the ŏ. O and u, on the contrary, coalesce easily, and form the well-known deep sound of ou in bought, or of a in fall.
Different Kinds of Diphthongs.
Although the sounds of the Italian e and o are here classed together, as diphthongs, with the English sounds of i and ou, this is not meant to deny a difference in degree between the two. The former might be called monophthongs, because the ear receives but one impression, as when two notes are struck simultaneously. It is only by theoretical analysis that we can detect the two component partsof e and o—a fact well known to every Sanskrit scholar. The âi and âu, on the contrary, are real diphthongs; and an attentive ear will perceive ah + fee in the English "I," ah + oo in the English "out." Sir John Herschell compares these sounds to quick arpeggios, where two chords are struck almost, but not quite simultaneously.
In African dialects, as, for instance, in Zulu, some Missionarie say that two vowels combine for the formation of one sound, as in hai (no), Umcopai (a proper name); others, that there are no diphthongs, but that, whenever two vowels meet, the separate power of each is distinctly marked and preserved in pronunciation. * This may defend on a peculiar disposition in the organ of hearing as well as it the organ of speech.
Objections are likely to be raised against our treating the vowel in "bought" and "fall" as a diphthong. There is, however, a
page 24
diphthong sound which stands to au (proud) in the same relation as oi (voice) to ai (vice). I imagine to hear it in the English broad, which has the same vowel as all, bawl, Paul, nor, war; and we certainly have it in the Swedish å The labial element, no doubt, is very slight; still, let any body pronounce â and ou (far and bought), and a looking-glass will tell him that he adds a distinct labial pressure in order to change the â into ou.
* An Essay on the Phonology and Orthography of the Zulu and kidred Dialects in Southern Africa, by L. Grout, p. 441.
Vowels broken by e or I.
In some languages we find that certain vowels are modified by an inherent ĕ, or, as some say, by i. The vowels most liable to this modification are a, o, u.
The a, with an inherent e, becomes German ä, as in väter, very nearly the same sound as in the English substantive bear. O, by the same influence, takes the German sound of ö in König, or that of the French eu in peu. U, in German, becomes ü, the French u in jurer.
To many organs these sounds are so troublesome that they are sometimes avoided altogether, as in English. Their pronunciation varies in different dialects; and the German ä sounds in some places like e, the French ü like u.
ae=V. 1; oe=II. 1; ue=I. 1.
altogether (as it is, to a great extent, if Tataric languages are written with Arabic letters), unless to these vowels a distinct category were assigned. Besides the broken or softened a, o, and u, the Tataric languages have a fourth vowel, a softening of the i, which we hear in "will." Thus we have, in Yakute:
| Hard vowels | a, | o, | i, | u. | Heavy vowels | a, | ä, | o, | ö, |
| Soft vowels | ä, | ö, | ï, | ü. | Light vowels | i, | ï, | u, | ü. |
All the vowels in a Yakute word depend on the first. If the first is hard, all following vowels must be hard; if soft, all become soft. Again, if the vowel of one syllable is heavy, that of the next can only be the same heavy vowel, or its corresponding light vowel. If it is light, that of the next syllable must be the same light vowel, or its corresponding heavy vowel. For instance, if the first syllable of a word has a, the next can only have a or i; if ä ä or ï; if o, o or u; if ö, ö or ü.
| Guttural | a, | short, as in | Sam; | long, as | in psalm. | |
| Guttural | ŏ, | O | short, as in | work | long, as in | cur(?) |
| Guttural | ĕ, | O | short, as in | bird | long, as in | cur(?) |
| Palatal | i | short, as in | knit; | long as in | neat. | |
| Labial | u | short, as in | full; | long as in | fool. | |
| Gutturo-palatal | ai (e) | short, as in | debt; | long as in | date. | |
| Gutturo-palatal | ai | short, as in | long as in | ire. | ||
| Gutturo-palatal | ei | short, as in | long as in | ice. | ||
| Gutturo-palatal | oi | short, as in | long as in | voice. | ||
| Gutturo-labial | au (o) | short, as in | not; | long as in | note. | |
| Gutturo-labial | au | short, as in | long as in | proud. | ||
| Gutturo-labial | eu | short, as in | Ital. | Europa. | ||
| Gutturo-labial | ou | short, as in | long as in | bought. | ||
| Lingual | rĕ | short, as in | fiery; | long as in | reach. | |
| Dental | Iĕ | short, as in | friendly; | long as in | leach. | |
| A broken, as in | Väter. | I broken, as in | Diener. | |||
| O broken, as | König. | U broken, as in | Güte. | |||
It has frequently been remarked that the short vowels in English (hat, bed, pit, pot, full) differ from their corresponding long vowels,
page 26
not merely in quantity, but in quality also. As they mostly occur in unaccented syllables, they have lost that vocal timbre which the short vowels in German and Italian have preserved. Still it is not necessary to invent new signs for these surd vowels, because in origin they correspond exactly to the short vowels in other languages, only that they are uniformly modified by a peculiarity of pronunciation inherent in the English tongue. The English language has lost the pure short vowels altogether; and it is not by the eye, but by the ear only, that foreigners can learn the peculiar pronunciation of the short vowels in English.