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Ngā Tohuwhenua Mai Te Rangi: A New Zealand Archeology in Aerial Photographs

Notes

page 278

Notes

Chapter 1: Archaeology and Aerial Photographs

1 Mitchell (1944: 76); Fowler (1974: 31-33).

2 Phillips (1989: 14-16).

3 E. Best (1925a: 242-246); Sissons (1991: 12). 'Pōtiki' is a qualifier indicating the junior line, see Stirling and Salmond (1980:38).

4 Strictly speaking, the climate is warm temperate.

5 D.R. Wilson (1982: 15-21).

6 Deuel (1971); D.R. Wilson (1982: 10-23).

7 Crawford (1924: 10).

8 Crawford and Keiller (1928: 3).

9 Crawford and Keiller (1928: 6-7).

10 For examples, Hudson (1984); Frere and St Joseph (1983); D.R. Wilson (1982).

11 For example, S.P. Smith (1910a, b).

12 Particularly E. Best (1925a; 1927).

13 Some current opinions, e.g., Sissons (1991), of the value of their work are somewhat harsh.

14 Before that date it covered only areas in which civil defence emergencies had occurred, such as Poverty Bay, and the major urban areas.

15 Stephens, et al (1991).

16 Blake-Palmer (1947). The sites will be discussed in later chapters.

17 Kelly (1951).

18 McFadgen (1992, pers. comm.).

19 Golson (1957: 66-67, Plate 1).

20 Buist(1964).

21 Buchanan (1973).

22 Brailsford (1981).

23 Prickett (1980, 1982a, 1990); Phillips (1989).

24 Records on file, Department of Conservation; Sutton (1991).

25 Slides held by H.M. Leach, University of Otago. Groube's thesis (1964) and papers (e.g., 1970) have references to pā (as if many had been seen from the air) and some aerial photograph figures.

26 Kennedy (1969).

27 H.M. Leach (1979).

28 H.M. Leach (1976:10-14). Stone rows on the Wairarapa coast are in chapters 4 and 13.

29 Nichol (1983).

30 Fraser (1907: 133).

31 Golson (1959); Davidson (1984: 123); Sewell (1986). All calendar date references in this book are to years A.D.

32 D.R. Wilson (1982: 27-40).

33 D.R. Wilson (1982: 39-53).

34 D.R. Wilson (1982: 53-70).

35 There are occasional examples of stone-revetting of scarps.

36 Crawford and Keiller (1928); D.R. Wilson (1982); Crawford (1924); Frere and St Joseph (1983).

37 For more precise measurements, the original photographs or site records of the New Zealand Archaeological Association should be consulted.

38 See Irwin (1985) on the Poutu Peninsula, Kaipara Harbour; K. Jones (1988a) on the Waipāoa River valley, East Coast; for site location analysis, Challis (1979).

39 Lilburn (1985).

40 H.M. Leach (1976; 1979).

Part 1

Chapter 2: Settlement Patterns

1 Kawharu (1977: 34-40).

2 Anderson (1980) for southern Ngāi Tahu case.

3 De l'Horme (in de Surville, 1982:127; see quotation in chapter 7); Banks (1958: 58-60).

4 Biggs (1990: 18).

5 Archaeologists for various reasons are more interested in the oldest settlements than they are in recent settlements. Despite this, the general pattern of dates has persistently remained late in the pre-European period, i.e., closer to the time of European arrival, especially in the north.

6 Golson (1959); Davidson (1984: 219-225).

7 There is no single reference work on New Zealand landforms that stresses terrace formations of alluvial or marine origin. The standard text on landforms was edited by Soons and Selby (1982).

8 O'Keeffe (1991: 82-88).

9 Pullar (1962).

10 Soils vary in a subtle fashion over the full extent of an alluvial plain, and the changes are not always marked by distinct changes in the level of terraces.

11 K. Jones (1988a).

12 K. Jones (1988a; 1989a).

13 K. Jones (1989b: 245-249).

14 Steep' is used in an intuitive sense.

15 McGlone (1983).

16 Guthrie-Smith (1970).

Chapter 3: Pā

1 Cook (1955); Banks (1958); Kennedy (1969).

2 Cook (1955: 197-199). Note that Banks (1958: 76) does not record a double ditch.

3 In Cook (1955: 200, footnote); see also Kelly (1953).

4 They created many historic reserves incorporating pā.

5 E. Best (1927).

6 Fox (1976).

7 Golson (1959); Davidson (1984: 100-103).

8 Cook (1955: 200).

9 See also Fox (1976); Davidson (1984: 181-194).

10 Irwin (1985); Prickett (1980); 1982a; 1983; 1990); McFadgen and Williams (1991); O'Keeffe (1991); K. Jones (1989b).

11 Fox (1976: 9).

12 Davidson (1984: 56-59).

13 Using the strict archaeological definition of a site with artifi-page 279cial defensive earthworks.

14 K. Jones (1989b).

15 Compared with other regions of New Zealand such as the East Coast.

16 Prickett (1980; 1982a).

17 Groube (1970); see also contrary view of Fox (1976: 21).

18 Groube (1964); Davidson (1984: 162-170).

19 Fox (1983). E. Best (1927) also offers various figures up to 1,400 people for pā in the inland Bay of Islands.

20 Bellwood (1978).

21 Kennedy (1969); Davidson (1984: 161-163).

22 Law and Green (1972).

23 B.F. Leach (1979); Prickett (1979; 1982b); Marshall (1991).

24 Davidson (1982a: 15).

25 Pool (1977); Groube (1964); Ballara (1979).

26 Buck (1950: 138).

27 Groube (1970); Green (1967).

28 Green (1967); S. Best (1993).

29 Parry (1977: map).

30 Hall (1875: 82). The Australs are south-east.ef the Society Islands.

31 Schmidt (1993).

32 For example, E. Best (1927: 293) on Heipipi, Hawke's Bay.

Chapter 4: Horticulture

1 Other species were coconut, banana and tī, see H.M. Leach (1984: 17-32).

2 Corynocarpus laevigatas; Freycinetia baueriana, banksii (the latter genus of the same family as the tropical pandanus).

3 H.M. Leach (1984); E. Best (1925b).

4 More rarely, on the surface of the terrace.

5 E. Best (1925b: 123); Walton (1983); Fox and Cassels (1983).

6 Barber (1989).

7 K. Jones (1984a; 1988b); Walton (1983).

8 Kirch (1985: 215-231).

9 For gardening on stony soils, see H.M. Leach (1979; 1984); Bulmer (1987); K. Jones (1989a).

10 McFadgen (1980a, b).

11 My field observation.

12 H.M. Leach (1979).

13 H.M. Leach (1979: 144-157).

14 Compare the annual mean temperatures for representative coastal locations such as Wellington Airport (13.3°), Para-paraumu Airport (12.9°), Nelson Airport (12.1°), Kaikoura (12.1°), Onāwe (Banks Peninsula) (12.4°), on the one hand, and Timaru (11.2°), Ashburton (11.2°) and Oamaru Airport (10.6°) on the other (New Zealand Meteorological Service n.d.).

15 H.M. and B.F. Leach (1979); B.F. Leach (1981).

16 K. Jones and Law (1987).

17 H.M. Leach (1979).

18 K. Jones (1989c: 60).

19 Bulmer (1987).

20 H.M. Leach (1979; 1984).

21 McFadgen (1980a).

22 I. Barber (1989).

23 Johnson (1986: 163-176) distinguishes between 'modified' or 'extended natural hydraulics' and 'artificial channel hy-

draulics'.

24 The soils were a dark colour and had gravel, sand, shell and charcoal mixed in (Peters, 1975).

25 Photograph in chapter 7.

26 Yen in Nicholls (1965); Peters (1975).

27 E. Best (1916: 77-108); Golson (1959); Green (1970); Parker (1962); Fox (1974).

28 For example, K. Jones (1984a).

29 See rua kopiha, E. Best (1925b: 227).

30 Davidson (1984: 121-127).

31 For example, E. Best (1916; 1925).

32 For example, Duff (1961).

33 Davidson (1984: 121-127); K. Jones (1989b: 251-255).

34 For example, Green (1970: 12-15).

35 K. Jones and Law (1987: 86).

36 For example, K. Jones (1986).

37 K. Jones (1988b).

Chapter 5: Other Economic Activities

1 Coster (1983; 1989).

2 Photograph in Law (1982); Trotter and McCulloch (1989: 62).

3 Law (1982).

4 Cassels et al (1988).

5 Adkin (1948: 25-30,357-358); Sheppard and Walton (1983).

6 Brailsford (1981: 154-155,160-161).

7 Tau et al (1990: 40-46).

8 H.M. and B.F. Leach (1980); K. Jones (1984b).

9 Kirch (1985: 179-180).

10 Typical examples of such island areas are Samoa, parts of the Cooks, Hawaii and the isolated southerly small islands of Rapa, Easter and Pitcairn Islands.

11 G.J. Williams (1974: 143-145).

12 Teviotdale (1939: 168-169); Knight and Gathercole (1961: 133-136); Anderson (1989).

13 B.G. McFadgen (1990, pers. coram.).

14 Teviotdale (1939: 168-169).

15 H.M. Leach (1984: 20-21).

16 Knight (1966); Fankhauser (1987).

17 Sutton (1977).

Chapter 6: Nineteenth-century Fortifications

1 Belich (1986: 291-310).

2 Belich (1986: 113-116).

3 Bowden (1991: 14-22).

4 Catton (1966: 166-167).

5 Buist (1968: 166).

6 Sorrenson (1981: 174,184).

7 Chandler (1974:128 and elsewhere); Catton (1966:166-167); Pugsley (1991, pers. comm.).

8 S.P. Smith (1910a: 470-476).

9 S.P. Smith (1910a, b).

10 S.P. Smith (1910a: 224-238); Phillips (1989:176-178); Kelly (1949: 356-367).

11 For example, in Hawke's Bay by Blake-Palmer (1947).

12 Narratives of the various campaigns are in Cowan (1983); Belich (1986).

page 280

13 Sorrenson (1981: 182). The general chronology is Bay of Islands (muskets, 1845), Crimean War (first extensive use of rifles by infantry, 1853-1856) (Bowden, 1991), the Waikato campaigns (1861-1863), and the American Civil War (1861-1865) in which there was extensive use of rifles and rifle trenches.

14 Plans in Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 34-87).

15 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 340-349).

16 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 342).

17 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 146-149).

18 See the map by Captain E. Brooke, R.E. (Alexander Turnbull Library negative number F29376/1/2); also a sketch corrected by Cowan (1983: Vol. 1, 343) from Brooke.

19 Brooke probably made a circuit of the defences, perhaps using a compass, and failed to close his survey line by some distance.

20 Newman (1988: 124-126).

21 Smart (1961); a qualified view is O. Wilson (1961).

Part 2

Chapter 7: Northland and Auckland

1 McEwen (1986:10-14); Simmons (1976:186-187,190-192).

2 Norman (1989: 188).

3 Pātere by the late Revd Māori Marsden; from a poster of Spirits Bay published by the Ministry for the Environment, translated by the Translation Service, Wellington. I thank Shane Jones and Mrs Jane Marsden for discussion.

4 Te A. Davis and Wilson (1990: 4-5).

5 Davidson (1982a: 18-19).

6 Nicholls (1965); see also Barber (1989: 35).

7 Salmond (1991: 364-371).

8 De Surville (1982: 15).

9 De l'Horme, in de Surville (1982: 127).

10 Kennedy (1969); Davidson (1984:161); Salmond (1991:418-421).

11 See 'Plan du Port Marion' in Salmond (1991: 209).

12 For example, the pā on Motuarohia (Spencer, 1983a: 267-270); Kelly (1951).

13 Davidson (1982a, b).

14 Ballance and Williams (1982).

15 K. Jones (1988b); Coster (1989).

16 Cox (1977); Gibbs (1980: 45-47).

17 Coster (1983; 1989).

18 For Hokianga North Head, see K. Jones (1984a).

19 Walton (1985a).

20 The Northland and Auckland volcanoes are andesitic rather than rhyolitic; the latter, such as the Taupō complex, erupt far more violently.

21 The volcanoes erupted through the clay country; see also Sutton (1991: 13).

22 Sutton (1991); E. Best (1927: 303-308).

23 Sissons et al (1987: 32).

24 Fox (1983: 14-15).

25 For example, Marshall (1991).

26 Standish (1962); Harris (1984).

27 Fox (1976); Davidson (1982b); Bulmer (1987).

28 Bulmer (1987: 156).

29 Belich (1986: 41-64); Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 34-87); Challis (1991).

30 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 34-48); Challis (1991).

31 Challis (1992, pers. comm.); Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 71) reports eyewitnesses as saying the line of the wall is 'almost exactly' on the original line of the fortification. However, the New Zealand Archaeological Association site record form by S. Bartlett has the churchyard lying skew across the outline of the fortification.

32 E. Best (1927: 56, 84).

33 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 49-72); Belich (1986: 45-57); Wards (1968: 150-159).

34 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 81-83).

Chapter 8: Waikato and Coromandel Peninsula

1 Te A. Davis and Wilson (1990: 4-5).

2 Except Taranaki tribes descended from the Kurahaupō canoe.

3 G.J. Williams (1974: 87-90).

4 See Law (1982).

5 Golson (1959); Green (1963; 1970); Davidson (1984: 123, 166-169).

6 Davidson (1984: 132).

7 Cook (1955: 205-210). 'Towns' probably did exist on the East Coast but were simply not seen by Cook (K. Jones, 1988a; 1989b).

8 Golson (1959); S. Best (1980); for artefacts, see Green and Green (1963).

9 Shawcross and Terrell (1966); S. Best (1980).

10 Selby(1982).

11 Selby(1982).

12 Bellwood (1969); Cassels (1972).

13 S.P. Smith (1910a; 224-238). A photograph of Mātakitaki is in chapter 6.

14 Cassels (1972) underestimates the importance of kūmara cultivation, concentrating more on fernroot gathering.

15 Law and Green (1972).

16 Discussed in Lilburn (1985: 37-71,125-127).

17 Walton (1983).

18 These areas are just to the north of the areas where Cassels and Walton worked, and have not been planted in pines.

19 Fox (1976: 44-45).

20 Kelly (1949: 305-308).

21 Phillips (1989: 14-17).

22 De Lange (1992, pers. comm.).

23 Hargreaves (1961: 227).

24 Court (1976); Hammer (1991: vii, 63-87).

25 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 289-335); Belich (1986: 119-157).

26 State Highway 1.

27 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 316-336).

28 Belich (1986: 158-165); Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 336-413).

29 L. Barber (1978: 22).

30 Cowan (1983: Vol. 1, 364-407).

31 Belich (1986: 167).

32 Cowan (1983: Vol. 1, 384).

33 Belich (1986: 175-176).

page 281

Chapter 9: Bay of Plenty and the Taupō Region

1 Stirling and Salmond (1980: 220). The former is a landscape feature near Waihi beach.

2 Banks (1958: 67).

3 Healy (1982).

4 New Zealand Geological Survey (1972).

5 Healy (1982).

6 Stirling and Salmond (1980: 83).

7 Te A. Davis and Wilson (1990: 4-5).

8 Banks (1958: 66-68).

9 K. Jones (1986); O'Keeffe (1991: 82-88).

10 McGlone (1983).

11 Blake-Palmer (1947).

12 Newman (1988).

13 K. Jones (1991a: 149-159).

14 Seelenfreund-Hirsch (1985); Davidson (1984: 197-200).

15 Seelenfreund-Hirsch (1985: 156).

16 S.P. Smith (1910a: 265-271).

17 Kelly (1949: 40).

18 Hargreaves (1959); Van der Wouden (1984).

19 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 421-440); Belich (1986: 177-95).

20 Belich (1986: 178).

21 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 416-418).

22 Nevin and Nevin (1980).

23 Cowan (1983, Vol. 2: 84-95); (1980).

24 Cowan (1983, Vol. 2: 337-361).

25 Cowan (1983, Vol. 2: 371-387); O. Wilson (1961); Belich (1986: 280-284).

26 The site is in Rotoaira Forest.

27 The reserves are managed by the Department of Conservation and the New Zealand Historic Places Trust.

28 O. Wilson (1961); Smart (1961).

29 O. Wilson (1961: 36, photo credit).

30 O. Wilson (1961: 47-48); compare Belich (1986: 283).

31 Smart (1961:63-65); see also comment by Belich (1986:283).

Chapter 10: East Coast

1 New Zealand Soil Bureau (1954); Pullar (1962).

2 K. Jones (1988a; 1989b).

3 Ngata and Buck (1988: 249).

4 Fowler (1974: 15-17).

5 From 'He Oriori mo Tu Tere Moana' by Tu Hoto Ariki, Ngata and Jones (1958, Poem 201, Vol. 3: 3-17). Ira-nui was a sister of Kahungūnu and an important ancestor of several East Coast iwi. Korau is the edible base of the frond of a tree fern.

6 Simmons (1976: 132-146).

7 K. Jones (1983; 1989b: 249-252; 1989c).

8 Banks (1958: 63, 147).

9 Banks (1958: 63); K. Jones (1983).

10 British Library Add. MS 23920, f. 38; K. Jones (1983: 534).

11 Cook (1955: 169-170). The ability of local Māori by sheer force of numbers to cut off a retreat to the Endeavour may have been a reason.

12 K. Jones and Law (1987: 107-110).

13 See photograph in K. Jones (1988a: 31).

14 K. Jones (1988a).

15 E. Best (1927: 386).

16 K. Jones (1988a).

17 K. Jones (1991).

18 K. Jones (1988a; 1991b).

19 K. Jones (1988a; 1989a).

20 Unpublished site records by Anne Leahy and Wendy Walsh and my field observations.

21 K. Jones (1989c).

22 K. Jones (1988a; 1991).

23 Belich (1986: 210, 219); Cowan (1983, Vol. 2:125-128). Te Aitanga a Māhaki is the iwi of the upper Waipāoa River.

24 Cowan (1983, Vol. 2: 124). The plan appears to be speculative.

25 K. Jones (1988a).

26 The cemetery is that of the Anglican Māori pastorate and is several sections to the north, not in the yard of the church.

27 Surviving photographs show a ruined, lightly constructed palisade and a very slight breastwork profile.

28 Professor Judith Binney stresses that unpublished accounts of the battle record a division between the occupants of this locality and the existence of two pā, or a new pā built in 1865 in a part of the old (see also Binney and Chaplin, 1986: 6).

29 Cowan (1983, Vol. 2: 270-284); Belich (1986: 260-267).

Chapter 11: Hawke's Bay

1 Te A. Davis and Wilson (1990: 5); Mitchell (1944: 47).

2 McEwen (1986: 10-15).

3 Binney (1990: 168-169).

4 W. Williams (1974: 415).

5 Mitchell (1944: 64, 80-82).

6 Unpublished; fieldwork contract supervised by the writer in 1987.

7 S.P. Smith (1910a: 320-368).

8 McEwen (1986: 41-44); Mitchell (1944).

9 E. Best (1927: 291-298).

10 Fox (1980); McEwen (1986: 42).

11 Bain (1992, pers. comm.).

12 Fox (1980: 235-240).

13 Fox (1982: 67-68).

14 Fox (1982: 77).

15 Fox (1978).

16 O. Wilson (1961).

17 In several phases. See Cowan (1983, Vol. 2: 129-136, 401-408).

18 Taylor (1987: 75-88); Walton (1982).

19 Cowan (1983, Vol. 2: 137-142).

20 Fox (1982: 77).

Chapter 12: Taranaki

1 The Mōkau River, to the north, is within the rohe of Ngāti Maniapoto (Prickett, 1983: 281-287).

2 Buist (1964); Prickett (1980; 1982a; 1983; 1990).

3 E. Best (1927: 189-239).

4 Neall (1982).

5 Prickett (1983: 284-286).

6 Simmons (1976: 191-201).

7 Excerpt from 'He Oriori mo Wharau Rangi' by Rangi Takoru of Ngāti Apa. 'Rangi Tawhi' is a puzzling reference to the pāpage 282of Turi at Pātea (Ngata and Jones, 1958, Poem 282, Vol. 3: 376-381). See also Davis and Wilson (1990: 65-67).

8 Buist (1964); Prickett (1983).

9 Prickett (1980; 1982a).

10 Cowan (1983, Vol. 2: 294-295).

11 Buist (1976: 6, dustjacket, P1.4).

12 Buist (1976: 3); Cassels and Walton (1992); Walton and Cassels (1992).

13 A. Walton (1992, pers. comm.).

14 Thomson (1976: 29).

15 Phillips (1989: 151).

16 Phillips (1989: 151).

17 Belich (1986: 81-116); Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 145-211). For maps, see Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 186); Prickett (1990: 45-53).

18 S.P. Smith (1910a: 219-220); Kelly (1949: 387-391).

19 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 211-220); Belich (1986: 108-113).

20 Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 219).

21 Prickett (1991, pers. comm.).

22 S.P. Smith (1910b: Map 5).

23 Belich (1986: 108-113).

24 Chandler (1974).

25 Sinclair (1961: 232).

26 Prickett (1990: 52).

27 Belich (1986: 203-257); Cowan (1983, Vol. 2: 46-71).

28 Buist (1976: 9).

29 Buist (1976: 15).

30 Buist (1976: 7, 11, also Plate 6).

Chapter 13: Southern North Island

1 The river valley is narrow with very narrow ridges adjacent to it, making for poor visibility of sites. In the Whanganui National Park, most sites are under a forest cover.

2 J. Wilson (1990: 17-20). For a discussion of Kupe's Sails, I thank Mr Hami Te Whaiti.

3 New Zealand Soil Bureau (1954).

4 E. Best (1901).

5 Cassels et al (1988).

6 S. Davis (1962); Davidson (1976).

7 Some of the pits were excavated by Walton (1985b).

8 The pits have not been fully published, but see Carkeek (1966: map 8).

9 H.M. Leach (1976).

10 H.M. Leach (1984: 33-52).

11 McFadgen (1980a) argued that the stones had been imported from the beach ridges which run parallel to the coastline and not generally from the native soils of the coastal strip.

12 H.M. Leach (1976: 11-13).

13 H.M. Leach (1979).

14 Wards (1968: 263).

15 Although they are earlier in age than extant European fortifications elsewhere; Cowan (1983, Vol. 1: 88-134); Wards (1968:214-300).

16 K. Jones (1987).

17 Mitcalfe (1970) argues for a pre-European age; Carkeek (1966: map 9).

Chapter 14: South Island

1 Tau et al (1990: 3/6).

2 Te A. Davis and Wilson (1990: 91); Tau et al (1990: 5/25).

3 For discussion, see Davidson (1984:30-59). Anderson (1989) discusses many South Island sites.

4 Anderson (1989).

5 I. Smith (1989).

6 Duff (1977); Anderson (1989: 122-125).

7 Trotter in Duff (1977: 349-354).

8 Anderson (1989: 122-125).

9 Anderson (1989: 131-134); Teviotdale (1939); Knight and Gathercole (1961).

10 Knight and Gathercole (1961: 133-136).

11 A. Jones (1962). Records of pits to the south of the peninsula are not considered to be for horticulture.

12 Trotter (1977); Trotter and McCulloch (1979); Brailsford (1981: 96-176); Rigg and Bruce (1923); H.M. Leach (1984: 33-53).

13 Trotter (1982: 97-99); McFadgen (1980b: 9-12).

14 Aerial photographs in Brailsford (1981).

15 Blake-Palmer (1947).

16 The main river channel enters a fan and breaks into several smaller channels or distributaries.

17 Brailsford (1981: 119-129).

18 Evison (1993: 49-50).

19 McKay and Trotter (1961).

20 Anderson and Sutton (1973).

21 K. Jones (1984b).

22 H.M. Leach and B.F. Leach (1980); Bristow et al (1985).

23 Davidson (1984:195-200).

24 Toughness was important in maintaining the cutting qualities during hard use.

25 Evison (1993: 51).

26 Brailsford (1981: 177-181).

27 They show only in original plans, see Brailsford (1981:177).

28 Brailsford (1981: 184-189); Evison (1993: 61-62).

29 Brailsford (1981: 154-156).

PART 3

Chapter 15: Coalmining, Sealing and Whaling, and Minor Industries

1 G.J. Williams (1974).

2 Thornton (1982: 100-101); for interpretation of specific features at Denniston, I am indebted to Ray Hooker (1992, pers. comm.). Earlier editions of topographical maps also name many of the features and townships near Denniston.

3 McDonald (1982: 23).

4 St. Clair and St. Clair (1989).

5 Cited in Morton (1982: 242).

6 Morton (1982: 230-236).

7 Cawthorn (1992, pers. comm.).

8 Morton (1982: 232); McDonald (1982: 71); Gibb and Flux (1973: 338-339).

9 Cited in Williment (1985: 136-138).

10 McDonald (1982: 71-74).

11 The land on which the station was built is foreshore reservepage 283managed by the Department of Conservation.

12 Bagley (1992, pers. comm.).

13 Reed (1972: 54).

14 Reed (1972: 3-39); McConnell (1980).

15 Coster (1984).

16 See Reed (1972: 72-81; unnumbered plates).

17 Hayward (1989).

18 G.J. Williams (1974: 175-176).

19 G.J. Williams (1974: 175-176); Clough (1990: 171-177; 1992).

20 G.J. Williams (1974: 175).

21 Clough (1990: 171-177; 1992).

Chapter 16: Mission Settlements and Early Farming

1 Lee (1983: 64).

2 Sale (1981: 33).

3 Davidson (1982a: 15); Spencer (1983b: 77-110).

4 Standish (1962: 11).

5 Standish (1962); Thornton (1982: 26); Harris (1984).

6 Slocombe (1992).

7 Standish (1962: 26, 40).

8 New Zealand Historic Places Trust (1989). I am indebted to Aidan Challis (1992, pers. comm.), a former curator at Te Waimate, for discussions on the archaeological features.

9 Hargreaves (1965: 144).

10 Fowler (1983a: 108-111); Hargreaves (1965: 148-150).

11 See Smart (1966) for Whanganui River.

12 Such an area might grow three tonnes of potatoes in the season. A family of six consuming 5 kg per day would use 1.8 tonnes.

13 Smart (1966).

14 Trotter (1976).

15 Jeal and Jeal (1982: 5,11; Fig. 1).

16 My field observation. See also Bellwood (1969: 198-199); B.F. Leach (1979: 114).

17 Taylor (1987: 134-138).

18 Waugh (pers. comm., 1991).

Chapter 17: Gold-mining

1 G.J. Williams (1974: 5-7).

2 G.J. Williams (1974: 6).

3 Fraser (1907: 133).

4 Park (1908:48-52); G.J. Williams (1974:53). The gold would be worth $18 million at today's prices.

5 Plans in Park (1908: 49-51).

6 G.J. Williams (1974: 5-7).

7 Hooker (1991, pers. comm.).

8 Park (1908: 47-48); Higham et al (1976: 171).

9 Ritchie (1981).

Chapter 18: Aerial Photography and the Historic Landscape

1 Fowler (1983b: 11-12).

2 Stephens et al (1991: 230-231).

3 Stephens et al (1991: 68-70).

4 Griffith (1990: 33).

5 Fowler (1983b).

6 I thank Mr Andrew Ormond, senior, for discussions on the property at Nukutaurua.

7 Cranston (1987: 145-147).

8 Kelly (1949).

9 Te A. Davis and Wilson (1990).