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The Vegetation of New Zealand

Contents

page XV

Contents.

Pages
Preface, ed. 1 V
Preface, ed. 2 VII
List of Figures VIII
Part I.
Introduction.
Chapter I. Preliminary Remarks 1
Chapter II. History of Botanical Investigation 8
    1. The Period of Voyages of Discovery in the South Pacific and of Investigations by Botanists from abroad 8
             The voyages of Captain Cook 8
             From Vancouver's voyage (1791) to the publication of the Flora Antarctica 8
    2. The Period of Colonial Collectors and Hooker's further Investigations 10
             General 10
             From the arrival of Colenso in New Zealand to the publication of the Flora Novae-Zelandiae (1853–55) 11
             From 1855 to the publication of the Handbook (1867) 11
    3. The Period of Publication by New Zealand Botanists 12
             From the founding of the New Zealand Institute to the publication of Kirk's Student's Flora (1899) 12
             From 1899 to the publication of Cheeseman's Manual (1906) 15
             From the appearance of the Manual in 1906 to the end of 1916 16
             From the commencement of 1917 to the end of 1927 18
Chapter III. Bibliography 26
Chapter IV. Sketch of the leading Physiographical Features of the Region 42
    1. General 42
    2. Physical Features of New Zealand proper 43
       a. North Island 43
       b. South Island 45
       c. Stewart Island 47
    3. Physical Features of the Outlying Islands 48
    4. The Soils of the New Zealand Botanical Region 50
Chapter V. The Climate of New Zealand 52
             General 52
             Rainfall 53
             Temperature 56
             Sunshine 58
             Wind 58 page XVI
Part II. The Vegetation of Primitive and Semi-primitive New Zealand.
Section I.
The Vegretation of the Sea-coast.
Chapter I. General Observations on the Coastal-Vegetation 60
             Brief account of the Coast-line 60
             Florlstle statistics 60
             General conditions regelating: the coastal regetation 62
Chapter II. The leading Physiognomic Plants and their Life-forms 63
             Dune plants 63
             Salt-swamp plants 65
             Trees 66
             The coastal ferns 67
Chapter III. The Autecology of the Coastal Plants 68
    1. Life-Forms 68
             Trees 68
             Shrubs 69
             Herbs and semiwoody plants 70
             Lianes 72
             Water plants 72
    2. Pollination 72
    3. Dissemination 73
    4. Seasonal changes 74
    5. Epharmonic modifications 76
             General 76
             The tree-form and shrub-form 76
             The prostrate form 76
             Succulence 77
             Leaves 77
             Colour changes 78
    6. Sand-binders 78
    7. Turf-making 78
             Cushion-mating 79
             Scrambling-lianes 79
             The case of Claytonia 79
             Forms not specially coastal 79
Chapter IV. The Plant Communities 79
    1. Communities of Salt or Brackish Water 79
       a. The seaweed communities 79
             Large-brown-algae formation 79
             Small emerging-algae formation 80
       b. Zostera formation 81
       c. Salt Swamp 82
        1. Mangrove (Avicennia) tidal forest or scrub 82
        2. The Salicornia formation 82
        3. Juncus-Leptocarpus formation 83
        4. Various minor communities 85
             Mimulus repens association 85 page XVII
             Scirpus lacustris association 85
             Brackish water submerged communities 85
    2. The Salt-meadow Group of Communities 85
       a. Salt-meadow proper 85
       b. Coastal-moor and allied communities 87
    3. Sea-shore communities 88
       a. Sandy Shore 88
       b. Beach of loose stones 89
    4. Dune 91
             General 91
             Sand grass dune 92
             Shrub-dune 92
             Fixed-dune 93
             Hollows and sand-plains 93
             The primary groups of associations 94
             The secondary groups of associations 94
             Ancient dunes 95
             Dune forest 95
    5. Rock and Cliff Vegetation 95
       a. General 95
       b. The Mesembryanthemum group of associations 96
       c. Pohutukawa (Metrosideros tomentosa) cliff 97
       d. Associations with Phorrnium Colensoi dominant 98
             Hebe macroura association 98
             Hebe salicifolia var. Atkinsonii association 99
       e. Coastal-fern association 100
       f. Rocky shore vegetation 100
       g. Rock associations of local occurrence 101
             Sand-eroded rock, north coast of Cook Strait 101
             Celmisia semicordata association 101
             Celmisia Lindsayi association 101
             Cliff-vegetation, west coast of Stewart Island 102
             Rock-debris associations 102
    6. Coastal Scrub 102
       a. General 102
       b. Tree-composite scrub 103
             The Senecio rotundifolius association 103
             The macrocephalous Olearia association 104
       c. Hebe elliptica scrub or thicket 105
       d. Liane scrubs 106
             Freycinetia scrub 106
             Muehlenbeekia scrub 106
        e. Forest scrub 106
             The North Cape 107
             Metrosideros tomentosa scrub 107
             Other forest scrubs 108
    7. Coastal forest 109
       a. General 109
       b. Groups of associations 110
        1. The Metrosideros tomentosa (pohutukawa) group 110 page XVIII*
        2. The Corynocaiypus (karaka) group 111
             General 111
             Various associations 111
        3. The Myoporum (ngaio) group 112
        4. Notliofagus coastal forest 112
        5. Coastal forest of certain small islands 113
             The Three Kings Islands 113
             The Poor Knights 113
        6. Semi-coastal forest 114
             General 114
             Special 114
Section II.
The Vegetation of the Lowlands and Lower Hills.
Chapter I. Introductory Remarks 116
             General 116
             Floristic details 117
Chapter II. The leading Physiognomic Plants and their Life-forms 120
    a. Forest Plants 120
             Tall or medium-sized trees 120
             Small trees and tall shrubs 122
             Other conspicuous species 125
    b. Plants of shrubland, heath, swamp, bog, grassland and rock 126
Chapter III. The Autecology of the Lowland Plants 128
    1. Life-forms 128
        a. Trees 128
        b. Shrubs 131
        c. Herbs and semi-woody plants 132
             Land plants 132
             Water plants 133
        d. Lianes, epiphytes and parasites 133
             Lianes 133
             Epiphytes 136
             Parasites 138
        e. Persistent juvenile-forms 139
    2. Pollination 142
    3. Dissemination 148
    4. Seasonal Changes 143
    5. Epharmonic modifications 145
             Life-forms of identical jordanons within and outside the forest 145
             Effect of a specially moist atmosphere or wet ground 145
             Life-forms of identical jordanons with different life-histories 146
             Effect of a specially dry climate 146
             The deciduous habit 146
Chapter IV. The Plant Communities 146
    1. Forest 146
        a. Introductory 146
             General 146
             Ecological conditions governing lowland-lower hill's forest 148 page XIX
             Distribution of the species 149
             General principles governing succession 150
             Principles npon which the classification of New Zealand forests is based 158
        b. The forest communities 154
         1. Subtropical rain-forest of broad-leaved dicotylous trees and conifers. 154
          α. General 154
          β. Kauri (Agathis australis)-broad-leaved dieotylous-tree forest 156
            (1.) General 156
            (2.) Kauri forest in a wide sense 157
             General 157
             The kauri (Agathis anstralis) subassoeiation 157
             The tarairo (Beilschmiedia tarairc) subassoeiation 158
             The tawa (Bcilschmiedia tawa) subassoeiation 159
             Pukatea (Laurelia novae-zclandiae) snbassoeiation 160
             Life-history of Agathis-dirotylons forest. 160
           γ. Podocarp-broad leaved dicotylous forest of dry ground 161
            (1.) General 161
            (2.) The podocarp communities 163
             Rimu (Daerydium cupressinum) communities 163
             Totara (Podoearpus totara, P. Hallii — at times) communities 164
             Matai (Podoearpus spicatns) communities 166
            (3.) The broad-leaved dicotylous tree communities 166
             General 166
             Tawa (Bcilschmiedia tawa) communities 167
             Kainahi (Wcinmannia raeemosa) communities 168
             Northcrn-rata (Jletrosideros robusta) forest 169
             Southcrn-rata (Metrosideros lueida) forest 170
             Forest communities of minor importance 170
            (4.) The life-history of podocarp-dicotylous broad-leaved forest of dry ground 172
           δ. Podocarp-dicotylous broad-leaved forest of wet ground 174
             General 174
             Kahikatea (Podoearpus dacrydioides) semi-swamp forest 174
             Life-history of semi-swamp forest 178
             Bog-forest and related communities 178
          2. Subantarctic Rain-forest 182
             General 182
             Montane Nothofagus forest of the Matnaku Plateau 183
             Nothofagus Solandri-truneata association 183
             Lowland Nothofagus forest in the west of the North-western district 184
             Lowland Nothofagus forest of the Fiord district 184
             Nothofagus Mcnziesii forest of the South Otago district 185
             Subantarctic-Subtropical lowland-forest 185
    2. Shrubland and Fernland 186
        a. General 186
        b. Leptospermum-Pteridium (manuka-bracken) communities 187
         α. General 187
         β. Ericoid shrubland 189
          1. Leptospermum (manuka) shrubland 189
             General 189 page XX
             Auckland manuka shrubland 189
             Voleanic Plateau (pumice) manuka shrubland 191
             Solfutara manuka shrubland 192
             Southern North Island manuka shrubland 192
             South Island manuka shrubland 192
             Magnesian soil shrubland 193
          2. Cassinia shrubland 194
         γ. Pteridium (bracken) fernland 195
        c. Scrub 195
             Scrub of a subalpine character 195
    3. Water Associations 196
    4. Swamp Vegetation 197
        a. General 197
        b. Monocotylous herb swamp 198
             Raupo (Typha) communities 198
             Phormium communities 199
             Nigger-head (Carex secta) communities 200
             Stewart Island swamps 200
             Montane swamps 200
        c. Shrub swamp 200
        d. Associations of warm water, or of hot ground exposed to steam 201
    5. Bog Vegetation 202
             General 202
             Sphagnum-Gleichenia bog 203
             Shrubland bogs 204
    6. River-bed Vegetation 206
        a. General 206
        b. Unstable river-bed formation 207
        c. The communities of stable river-bed 208
             General 208
             The eastern South Island Raoulia association 208
             River-bed dune 208
             Groves of trees &c. on eastern river-bed 208
             The western South Island Raoulia association 209
             Western river-bed forest 209
             North Island river-bed 210
    7. Grassland 210
        a. General 210
        b. The plant-formations and groups of associations 211
           1. Low (Festuca-Poa) tussock-grassland 211
             General 211
             Life-history of the formation 214
             Primitive low tussock-grassland 216
             Modified lowland low tussock-grassland 216
             Low tussock-grassland of semi-arid habitat 217
             Montane low tussock-grassland 217
           2. Tall tussock-grassland 218
             General 218
             The Danthonia Raoulii var. rubra (red-tussock) association 219
             Danthonia Eaoulia var. flavescens association 220 page XXI
    8. Rock Vegetation 220
             General 220
             Communities of the Auckland districts 221
             Communities for the rest of North Island 221
             South Island roek communities 223
Section III.
The Vegetation of the High Mountains.
Chapter I. General Remarks 224
             Floristic details 224
             Vertical distribution (the belts of vegetation) 226
             High-mountain plants at sea-level 228
             The ecological conditions of the high mountains 229
             Ropeopling the new ground during the retreat of the glaciers 232
Chapter II. The leading Physiognomic Plants and their Life-forms 234
             Forest plants 234
             Shrubland plants 236
             Plants of tussoek-grassland, herb-field, fell-field and related formations 238
Chapter III. The Autecology of the High-mountain Plants 242
    1. Life-Forms 242
             Trees 242
             Shrubs 242
             Lianes, epiphytes and parasites 243
             Herbs and semi-woody plants 244
    2. Pollination 246
    3. Dissemination 247
    4. Seasonal changes 247
    5. Epharmonic modifications 250
             General 250
             Nanism 251
             The prostrate-form 251
             The cushion-form 251
             Divaricating shrubs 252
             The occurrence of spines 252
             Miscellaneous 253
Chapter IV. The Plant Communities 254
    1. Subalpine Forest 254
        a. General 254
        b. The Nothofagus communities 255
          α. General 255
          β. The mountain southern-beech (Nothofagus cliffortioides) group of associations 256
             General. 256
             Dry Nothofagus cliffortioides forest 257
             Wet Nothofagus cliffortioides forest 258
          γ. Silver southern-beech (Nothofagus Menziesii) group of associations 260
             General 260
             The upper forest of Mount Tc Aroha (Th.) 260
             Montane forest of Hast Cape district 261 page XXII
             Montane lower subalpine forest of the Volcanic Plateau 261
             The uppermost belt of the Tararua Mountains 261
             Upper forest of Mount Stokes (SN.) 261
             Various associations of the North-western district 262
             Governor's Hush near Mount Cook Hermitage 262
             Associations of the Fiord and South Otago districts 262
          δ. Montane Nothofagus Solandri forest of the Eastern district 263
          ε. Life-history of Nothofagus forest 263
        c. Conditional subantarctic forest communities 265
             Tree-composite forest 265
             Mountain toa-toa (Phyllocladus alpinus) group of associations 266
             Mountain ribbonwood (Hoheria glabrata) low forest 267
        d. Subtropical rain-forest and allied communities 267
          α. General 267
          β. Associations and groups of such 268
             Southern kawaka-totara (Libocedrus Bidwillii-Podocarpus Hallii) group 268
             Katuahi (Weinmannia raeemosa) group of associations 269
             Southern-rata (Metrosideros lucida) group of associations 270
        e. Montane and subalpine bog-forest 271
             General 271
             The Volcanic Plateau 272
             North-western district 272
             Western district, eastern side of the Divide 272
             Western district, western side of the Divide in southern part 272
    2. Shrub Communities 273
       a. General 273
       b. Associations usually of shingly ground 273
             Disearia thicket 273
             Hebe shrubland 274
       c. Subalpine-scrub 275
        α. General 275
        β. Shrub-composite scrub 277
             General 277
             Mount Hikurangi (EC.) 277
             Mount Egmont (EW.) 277
             Tararua Mountains (RC.) 277
             Southern Alps and mountains of the North-western district 278
             Stewart Island 278
             North-eastern district 279
        γ. Other types of subalpine-scrub 279
             Phyllocladus scrub 279
             Cupressoid-podocarp scrub 279
             Dracophyllum scrub 280
             Manuka (Leptospermum) scrub 280
             Cassinia scrub 281
             Southern-beech (Nothofagus) scrub 281
    3. Mixed communities (shrubs, herbs, semi-woody plants, grasses &c.) 281
       a. Rock vegetation 281
        α. General 281 page XXIII
        β. The rock communities 283
             North Island communities 283
             South Island dry mountains communities 284
             Communities of South Island wet mountains 286
             Stewart Island rocks 287
       b. Vegetation of loose, stony debris 287
          1. The shingle-slip formation and allied communities 287
        α. General 287
        β. The associations of true shingle-slip and their allies 289
             Those of South Island dry greywacke mountains 289
             The Ilaastia pulvinaris association 290
             The association of the Western district 290
             Vegetation of scoria slopes 291
             Vegetation of rock slides 291
          2. Vegetation of river-beds, fans and allied habitats 292
             River-bed vegetation 292
             Vegetation of fans 293
       c. The fell-field, grassland and herb-field series of communities 293
          1. General 293
          2. Fell-field 294
        α. General 294
        β. Fell-field of the dry mountains or a specially dry substratum 296
             Pumice fell-field 296
             The subalpine group of associations of the dry South Island mountains 298
             The alpine group of associations of the dry South Island mountains 299
             Fell-field dependant on the chemical nature of the substratum 300
        γ. Fell-field of the wet mountains 301
          3. Grassland 303
        α. General 303
        β. Low tussock-grassland 304
             General 304
             The Festuca novae-zelandiae group of associations 304
             Poa Colensoi or P. intermedia (blue-tussock) grassland 305
             Danthonia setifolia grassland 306
        γ. Tall tussock-grassland 306
             General 306
             Red-tussock (Danthonia Eaoulii var. rubra) grassland 307
             Snowgrass (Danthonia Eaoulii var. flarescens) grassland 307
        δ. Mat-grassland 309
             The carpet-grass (Danthonia australis) association 309
             Neodle-grass (Poa acieularifolia) association 309
             Mountain-twitch (Triodia exigua) association and its allies 310
    4. Herb-field 310
        α. General 310
        β. North Island dry herb-field 313
             Mounts Te Moehau (T.) and Hikurangi (EC.) 313
             The Tararua Mountains 313
             Mount Egmont 313
        γ. South Island dry herb-field proper 314 page XXIV
        δ. Tall tussock herb-field 317
             The North Island communities 317
             The South Island communities 317
        ε. South Island wet herb-fleld 318
    5. Herb-moor 318
             General 318
             South Island herb-moor 319
             Stewart Island herb-moor 320
       a. Bog, water and swamp communities 321
        α. Bog associations 321
             General 321
             Various classes of bog 322
        β. Water and swamp vegetation 323
             Water communities 323
             Swamp 324
Section IV.
The Vegetation of the Outlying Islands.
Chapter I. The Vegetation of the Kermadec Islands 324
             General 324
             The physiognomic plants 325
             Autecology of the plants 326
             The plant-communities 327
Chapter II. The Vegetation of the Chatham Islands 328
             General 328
             The leading physiognomic plants and their life-forms 329
             The autecology of the plants 331
             The plant-communities 332
Chapter III. The Vegetation of the Subantarctic Islands 336
             General 336
             The ecological conditions 338
             The leading physiognomic plants and their life-forms 338
             The autecology of the plants 340
             The plant-communities 343
Part III.
The Effect of Settlement upon the Plant-covering of New Zealand.
Chapter I. The Introduced Plants growing wild without Cultivation 352
             General 352
             Statistical 353
Chapter II. The New Vegetation 355
    1. General 355
    2. Modified communities 356
             General 356
             Some examples of modified communities 357
    3. Exotic-induced communities 358
       a. Tree associations 358
       b. Shrub associations 359
             Leguminous shrubs 359 page XXV
             Rosaceous shrubs 359
             Australian shrubs 360
       c. Communities of herbaceous and semi-woody plants 360
             Thymus Tulgaris (garden thyme) association 360
             Some herbaceous plant communities 360
    4. Indigenous-induced communities 361
       a. General 361
       b. The grassland series 362
             Danlhonia pilosa grassland 362
             Induced steppe 363
             Celmisia spectabilis and Chrysobaetron colonics 365
             The incoming and spreading of Lyeopodium fastigiatum 366
             Invading shrub-associations 367
       c. The swamp series 367
             The Phormium association 367
             Cabbage-tree (Cordyline australis) swamp 368
             Divaricating-shrub swamp 368
             Induced Phormium association 368
       d. Some high-mountain induced associations 368
             Hebe shrubland 368
             Induced fell-field and herb-field 369
             Indueed cushion-plant association 369
    5. Artificial communities (by A. H. Cockayne) 370
             Displacement of forest by burning and replacement by artificial pasture without ploughing the ground 370
             Fern crushing 371
Chapter III. Agriculture and Horticulture in New Zealand 372
             Agriculture 372
             Horticulture 374
Part IV.
The Flora of New Zealand, its Distribution and Composition.
Chapter I. The Botanical Subdivisions of the Region 378
    1. General 378
    2. The Botanical Provinces 379
             1. The Kermadec Province 379
             2. The Northern Mainland Province 379
             3. The Central Mainland Province 379
             4. The Southern Mainland Province 379
             5. The Chatham Province 379
             6. The Subantarctic Province 379
    3. The Botanical Districts 380
             The Kermadec District 380
             The Three Kings District 380
             The North Auckland District 380
             The South Auckland District 381
             The Volcanio Plateau District 383
             The East Cape District 385
             Tho Egmont-Wanganui District 386
             The Ruahine-Cook District 387 page XXVI
             The Sounds-Nelson District 388
             The North-eastern District 389
             The North-western District 390
             The Eastern District 392
             The Western District 394
             The North Otago District 395
             The South Otago District 396
             The Fiord District 398
             The Stewart District 399
             Certain other Districts 400
Chapter II. The Families, Genera and Elements of the Flora 400
    1. The General Statistics 400
             Hybrids 401
    2. The Elements of the Flora 403
             The endemic element 403
             The Palaoozelandic element 407
             The Australian clement 409
             The Subantaretic element 411
             The Palaeotropic element 414
             The Cosmopolitan element 415
             The Lord Howe and Norfolk element 416
    3. General Conclusions 416
Part V.
The History of the Flora.
             General 418
             The problematical history of the flora 422
Index 427
Plates I—LXXXVII.