The Operation

Measuring the back (ano le tua). Apart from the execution of detail, a person's tattooing is judged by the height at which the lines from the top page 643corners of the canoe motif on the back, come forward round the sides of the ribs. They may be too high or too low and disparaging remarks are made accordingly concerning the artist's skill. The first process, therefore, consists of marking out the commencing motifs on the back as in figure 330.

The tattooing takes place in a house set aside and generally with the wall screens let down on the side facing the public street. The father and local chiefs are present at the initial steps. The patient kneels on both knees with his back towards the artist and the light. He is instructed to keep the back straight and rigid with the head up, elbows bent slightly out from the sides and forward with the hands clenched and raised. The artist has all his instruments arranged beside him with the combs resting over the rim of a bowl of water. The prepared pigment is on the talo leaf palette. The tattooing artist, Faioso, demonstrated the whole process on a young man. To get the first line he used what he termed mafaufau (judgment). He could give no anatomical landmarks or approximate measurements of the parts of the body to get the level. No, it was a question of mafaufau that came through serving an apprenticeship to a master craftsman. It was easier to draw the line than to explain exactly where it should be drawn. The same mafaufau persists throughout the operation.

The six lines completing the measuring (ano) of the back (tua) finished, the patient stands up and shows his back to his father and the other chiefs present for their approval. A discussion takes place as to whether the position of the figures is too high, too low, or correct. If agreed to at once, the actual tattooing commences immediately. If not agreed to, further argument and discussion take place the artist naturally adhering to his opinion as expressed by the marking. A difference of opinion is termed utunga lua. When unanimity prevails, the tattooing proceeds.

A large roll or bundle of bark cloth is laid on the floor and the patient lies chest down with the fold under his abdomen. The fold thus elevates the small of the back and stretches the site of the operation. The artist sits on the head side and the assistant on the opposite side towards the legs. The artist uses the mallet with his working hand so the other hand which holds the tattooing comb must be on the side nearest the patient's body. (See Plate LVI, A.) The artist rolls a piece of bark cloth loosely round the hand, takes up the appropriate instrument for making lines (au songi aso laitiiti), dips the points of the comb in the pigment, lays the points on the right end (from himself) of the base line (fig. 330, a, 1) and gives it a sharp tap with the mallet. He lifts the comb to continue a connected line and with quick taps he soon runs the line across. The hand with the mallet is held a little distance away so that it is the end of the fairly long mallet that strikes the handle of the instrument above the comb. The tapping is by finger and wrist movement. The swing of the mallet end describes quite a long arc and the tap is made page 644smartly, firmly, and with precision. Three different patients were seen being tattooed and the long arc described by the mallet and the quick confident movements were what impressed me most. The hand holding the comb rests on the patient's body and so maintains accuracy in placing the teeth. The assistant holds the dampened bark cloth towel over the body just below the line of the tattooing and every now and again between strokes or whilst the artist is dipping the comb in the pigment, the towel is lifted up over the site of tattooing and pressed down to soak up blood and extra pigment. As the towel is pulled back, the assistant keeps the skin stretched with the hands outside the towel.

The back motifs are filled in as shown in figure 330b. Before filling it in, however, certain motifs are made as in the pula tele to relieve the wide dark band. The right side of the intermediate lines, the pula tele and the canoe are then made symmetrical with those of the left.

The younger generation of tattooing artists maintain that they do better work than the older school because they introduce more ornamentation lines and break up the monotony of the wider dark bands. This is best shown by taking the simpler older design in figure 330c, copied from Kramer (18, vol. 2, p. 77, fig. 4) and comparing it with Faioso's work.

The enhancing of wide bands by the modern school is shown in figure 330d.

Figure 330.—Tattooing; commencement (back):

a, The first line drawn was le aso o le pula (the line of the pula) which corresponds to Kramer's aso fa'alava (18, vol. 2, p. 77). The artist picked the narrowest instrument (au fa'atala) and dipped the side of the comb into the pigment. With the side of the instrument, he made a series of short lines in the horizontal direction (1). The artist laid both hands over the patient's hips and held him steady while he scrutinized the level and straightness of the line. The second line (2) was made slightly above and parallel with it to form the lower limits of the va'a (canoe). A little distance above that, the third line (3) forming the upper limits of the canoe was marked off. The outer ends curved slightly upwards. These lines are afterwards curved forward to form the fa'aulutao which form the subject of criticism mentioned. Fa'aulutao means to make like the head (ulu) of a spear (tao). The fourth line (4) commences from the first line to the left of the middle line and descends obliquely to the middle line. From there it ascends to a point equidistant from the middle line on the right. This forms a triangle base upwards and marks the lower limits of the figure known as the pula tama.

Then follow the lines (5 and 6) made parallel with the fourth lines (4). but both starting from the base line (1) on the) left and finishing at points on the right that are equidistant from the spine. The outer ends of line (5) correspond practically with the continuation downwards of the post-axillary line. The figure is known as the pula tele. b, The base line (1) is completed and the lower lines of the pula tama triangle (2). The triangle is then filled in (tapulu) with one of the wider combs. Between the triangle and the upper line (a, 6) of the pula tele, the space is filled in as the taste of the artist or the patient directs. In this case, there is first a line of dots (tongitongi) as (3), then two aso tongitongi dotted lines (4 and 5) followed by another row of tongitongi dots (6). This covers the space and the boundary lines of the pula tele (7) are made and the part between filled in (tapulu). Before filling in certain figures are formed to relieve the monotony of a plain wide band.

In filling in the above, only the base line and the pula tama triangle were completed. All below the triangle were made on the left to the middle line. The left half of the canoe (8) is also filled in. c, The canoe (3), pula tama (1) and pula tele (2) are all plain and unrelieved by any introduced motives. Between the pula tama and the pula tele, there is only one sigle line, whereas in b, there are two lines of dots and two serrated lines that from the point of view of the younger Samoan give greater decorative effect. d, Enhancement of the left side of the canoe (va'a). Here the large serrations (1 and 3) are known as fa'atala laupaongo (spiked like pandanus leaves). The rectangular figure internally enhanced (2) is the fa'aila already mentioned. The long, narrow triangles (4) are known as fa'asingano (made like the long petals of the male pandanus flower). Any variety of motives may be introduced in a dark field and the general term for such treatment is fa'aila. The outer lines (5) are the fa'aulutao lines that run from the upper angles of the canoe around to the front of the body.

Lower back motifs. The artist works on until he considers that he has done enough for the day or stops earlier if the patient shows signs of excessive pain and exhaustion.

From the pula tele, the tattooing works down on the left in the middle line. To the outer side, the motifs extend out to about the post-axillary line. When a certain amount has been done on the left side, the right side is done in the same way so as to make the design bilaterally symmetrical. The order of motifs in one of Faioso's designs is shown in figure 331.

The parts between the wider bands are filled in as the artist pleases. There is no set rule as to the number of finer lines between the wider bands. Thus in the simple design in figure 330 c, they are filled in with a varying number of fine parallel lines (aso laitiiti).

Owing to the lower oblique lines of the pulatama triangle (the upper part of the patterns) the lines of tattooing run obliquely outwards and upwards from the middle line of the spine. The second tafani runs out to about the anterior superior spine of the ilium. In some designs, a wide vertical band called the ivitu is run up the middle line to divide the two sides. In any case, the two sides diverge towards the lower end owing to the anatomical separation of the gluteal muscles. As the divergence takes place, the part between is filled in with solid tattooing (tapulu) for as far as is convenient.

Some artists work down as far as the second tafani and then complete the anterior side margins (aso fa'aifo) but others keep on down to the solid thigh lausae as described. When the latter course is pursued, the tattooing page 646stops at about the mid-axillary line and cannot be completed until the anterior margins are dealt with.

Figure 331.—Tattooing; elements of design (back). It will be noted that the wider bands working down from the pula tele (1) are two tafani (2, 3) and three saemutu (4, 5, 6). These are evenly spaced and have a fixed order, but they may be decorated with fa'aila motives. If the patient is tall it may be necessary to add a fourth saemutu to fill in the space. An analysis of the more decorative design in the figure is as follows:

(a) Between pulatele (1) and the first tafani (2) Serrated line (aso tongitongi) (1'), two lines (aso moelua) (2'). Serrated line (aso tongitongi) (3'). (b). Between first (2) and second (3) tafani. Six thin lines (aso laitiiti) (4'), (c). Between the second tafani (3) and first saemutu (4). One serrated line (aso tongitongi) (5') (d) Between first (4) and second (5) saemutu. Four thin lines (aso laitiiti) (6'), (e). Between second (5) and third (6) saemutu. Two serrated lines (aso tongitongi moelua) (7'). Below the third saemutu is a combination of two zigzag lines (fa'anufe moelua) (8') and a wider plain band (7) which are collectively referred to as the aso talitu. The aso talitu forms the end of the buttock design. Just below it is the solid tattooing of the thigh called lausae but just within the latter boundary are a few introduced fa'aila known as fa'aila tautau (9'). This brings us to the lower level of the gluteal area.

Figure 332 shows a very elaborate back design drawn by Faioso himself in pencil and copied in the figure in every detail.

Front of the body. The lines (aso) terminating (fa'aifo) the design on the anterior part of the body are curved forward from the end of the back base line and descend on the anterior surface of the abdomen to meet the punialo unit of the design. The punialo is a triangular unit in the middle line with the base upwards and the apex resting on the pubis, the point being indeterminate and lost as it were in the pubic hair. It is usually tattooed in youth some years before the age of regular tattooing is reached. In modern times, it is used as a test. Young men desiring to be tattooed, yet fearful of the pain, have the punialo tattooed and if they can stand the pain, they go on with the full tattooing later. Many young men are to be seen with the punialo unit alone. They could not summon up the courage to go on with the major operation. This, of course, exists in modern times when youth can please itself. In olden page 647

Figure 332.—Tattooing, back designs drawn by the young tattooing artist, Faioso.

The base line (1) is serrated and between it and the canoe (2), tern, caterpillar, and bent knee motifs are introduced. The pula tele (3) is enhanced with fa'aila and with the fa'alaupaongo triangles forming saw tooth edges. The pula tama is hardly recognizable and between it and the pula tele, the large centipede and tern motifs are introduced. The centipede (4) also separates the two arms of the pula tele in the middle line. The first (5) and second (6) tafani bands are enhanced with two fa'aila and the inner end of the second tafani is made with large alternating triangles that form the large caterpillar (anufe) motif between. The caterpillar motif (7) is so outstanding that the tafani is termed tafani fa'aanufe. The first saemutu (8) dark band is made in two parts in such a way as to form two pairs of lozenge shaped fa'aila with a clear line bisecting the band. The two succeeding saemutu (9, 10) are fairly narrow plain bands but the spaces above, between and below are filled in with various motifs which have replaced the parallel plain lines of the older designs. The last saemutu (11) has 3 oblique fa'aila and the talitu (12) ends in 2 thin lines with large fa'alaupaongo points projecting downwards towards the 4 fa'aila below it.

times, tattooing was necessary for a chief to hold his status, as an untattooed chief was a thing unheard of. The formation of the fa'aifo and the continuation of the back motifs round the sides to the front are shown in figure 333.

Figure 333.—Tattooing design, side and front of body:

a, side view; the outer line of the aso fa'aifo (1) curves forward from the posterior axillary line and descends to meet the base of the punialo (2). The fa'aifo lines, making four or five altogether, are made parallel and so arranged that the outermost coincides with the angle of the base of the punialo. The lines correspond to a continuation of the upper lines on the back between the pula tele (12) and the first tafani (3). The fa'aifo lines may be plain as in the figure or serrated with points. The innermost of the aso fa'aifo lines forms the anterior boundary of the tattooing as far as the punialo, the sides of which continue the boundary below. If the punialo has not been already tattooed, the fa'aifo lines are carried down to the approximate position of the punialo which is left to the last. With the patient lying on the opposite side, the motifs from the back are continued outwards until they meet the fa'aifo lines and are thus closed. In the design shown, the first and second dark tafani bands (3, 4) and the first and second saemutu bands (5, 6) reach the fa'aifo lines. Two more saemutu bands (7, 8) are shown reaching the side of the punialo triangle while yet another saemutu band (9) with the talitu (10) are shown following in their respective order. The fa'aila motifs (11) follow below the talitu, while the canoe (13) with the fa'aulutao line (14) are shown above. The plain, dotted, and zigzag lines between the darker bands are continued on from the back. b, Front view showing fa'aifo lines (1) meeting the upper border of the punialo (2); the two tafani (3, 4) and two saemutu (5, 6) meet the fa'aifo lines; the three lower saemutu (7, 8, 9) are shown meeting the side of the punialo while the talitu band (10) meets the selu comb (15) opposite the scrotal attachment; the fa'aila motifs (11) are continued to the front. The form of the punialo (2) is shown with the vaetuli (bent knee) motif on the base line, two rows of fa'alaupaongo (pandanus thorns) with their points meeting to form lozenges, a row of pandanus thorns with their points upwards and the rest of the triangle filled in with cross hatching ('upenga). The filling in over the navel (16) is shown though it is not done until the finish of the full tattooing.

Back of the thigh. With the patient on his face, the upper boundary of the thigh is formed by the talitu and the line of fa'aila tautau already tattooed and corresponding practically with the lower fold of the gluteus muscle. The popliteal space at the back of the knee is a special region (atingivae) bounded by a transverse line above the level of the joint. A little to the inner side of the middle longitudinal line of the thigh, a line termed the aso fa'amuli'ali'ao (aso, line; fa'amuli'ali'ao, long narrow triangle motif) is tattooed from the transverse line above the knee joint to a point below the gluteal fold. This important line divides the back of the thigh above the popliteal space into outer and inner areas. As the name indicates, the line forms a base upon page 649which the Trochus ('ali'ao) shell triangular motif is introduced. The long narrow triangles are made singly or in pairs (moelua), with their bases formed by the longitudinal line and their apices directed outwards. The spaces between the triangles are filled in solid (tapulu) and are included in the outer area (lausae) which is continued outwards to the front of the thigh. The inner area is filled in with lines parallel with the longitudinal boundary line and like it are termed aso fa'amuli'ali'ao. The inner back area of the thigh receives no special name, the name of the dominant line motifs being evidently considered sufficient. The treatment of the two posterior thigh areas and the popliteal space is shown in figure 334.

Figure 334.—Tattooing design; back of thigh and knee (fa'amuli'ali'ao, lausae, and atingivae).

Back of right thigh. The already tattooed area of the back ends in the talitu band (10) and the fa'aila motifs (11). The longitudinal line (1) termed aso fa amuli'ali'ao extends from the line (2) above the knee joint to the point (3) below the gluteal fold. On the base line (1), a number of long, narrow triangles (fa amuli'ali'ao) are made with their apices directed outwards to the right. In the design the triangles are made in pairs (fa amuli'ali'ao moelua), the lower triangle of each pair being smaller. The triangles are enhanced internally by serrated lines, by the tern motif (4) in the lower two pairs, and smaller triangles (5) in the upper three pairs. The spaces between the triangles are filled in solid (tapulu) with the tapulu instrument and the dark tattooing extends outwards to fill in the outer lausae area. Below, the lausae area is defined by the serrated line (6) which extends outwards from the transverse line (2) and curves upwards on the outer side of the thigh. Above, the lausae is defined by a line (7) made between the talitu (10) and the fa'aila (11). An ornamental horizontal panel (8) is outlined below and to the right of the lower pair of triangles. The lausae area on the back is filled page 650in with the tapulu instrument between the boundaries mentioned and the fa'aila elements (11) thus show up as little windows in the dark area. The lausae area is filled in as far as convenient and its extension to the front is dealt with later. The inner back area is dealt with by making the oblique line (9) as an upper boundary. The space above the oblique line (9) is filled in solid as far as the upper boundary line (7) of the lausae. From the original boundary line (1), parallel longitudinal lines (aso fa'amuli'ali'ao) are made as far as the inner margin (12) of the thigh and bounded above by the oblique line (9) and below by the horizontal line (2), Near the inner margin, one of the longitudinal lines is enhanced by the serrated motif (13). The longitudinal lines are interrupted (fa'amotumotu) by a panel of horizontal lines (14), introduced to break the monotony of the long lines. The popliteal area (atingivae) is bounded above on the inner side by the transverse line (2). To the outer side the upper boundary is indicated by the serrated lower border (6) of the lausae, but a plain line (15) is made parallel with it and curving upwards at the outer end. The upper boundary of the atingivae is very slightly above, or corresponds with the line of the knee joint. The lower boundary is formed by a line (16) running transversely across below the joint level. In the figure design, the atingivae area is treated by forming a serrated vertical line (17) from the line (1) supporting the triangles. The inner side is treated as the artist thinks fit with a vertical plain line and horizontal lines, plain, or serrated, with perhaps the tern (18) or other motif introduced. The tattooing elements of the inner side of the atingivae are continued on the inner surface of the knee and their boundary defined when the patient is turned into a more convenient position. To the right side of the serrated line (17) a series of diagonal lines fill in the lower corner and an opposite series of diagonals cross the upper corner. External to the diagonal lines, a fa'aila element (18) is outlined and the remaining portion filled in with the tapulu instrument.

Front of the thigh. The back of the thigh having been dealt with and the tattooing complete from the canoe motif on the back to the atingivae behind the knee, the patient is turned to lie on his back. The lower boundary of the completed tattooing (see fig. 333 b) is formed by the anterior continuation of the talitu base which ends internally in the comb (selu) motif. A certain amount of the outer surface of the thigh has been dealt with from the back. The serrated lower border of the dark lausae area is brought around to the front and continued obliquely upwards to the inner side of the lausae. The inner anterior part of the lausae area is termed the auanga and is embellished with long panels (fa'aila o le auanga). The remaining area is filled in with the tapulu instrument. The dark lausae area thus extends over the back, outer side, and front of the thigh, being bounded above by the talitu, on the back by the longitudinal line carrying the Trochus (shell) triangles, and below and anteriorly by the line above the atingi vae which is continued upwards and inwards over the front of the thigh. The large dark area so formed has been referred to as the tapulu by Marquardt (20), and Handy (14), and it is so termed at times by the Samoans. The use of the term tapulu refers to the dark filling in with the tapulu instrument. All the wider bands, the canoe, pula tama, pula tele, tafani, and saemutu are filled in with the tapulu instrument which, from its size, fills in the space more quickly. While the large thigh area may be termed tapulu from the extensive use of the tapulu instrument page 651and method, it is regionally known as the lausae and the auanga is a special part of it.

The part between the lausae and the longitudinal lines on the inner side of the back of the thigh is divided into two areas by a line which rises on the outer side of the knee cap ligament and runs obliquely upwards to the inner part of the thigh. The outer of the two areas is the fusi (belt) and the inner is the ulumanu (bird's head). The belt area is continuous with the outer part of the atingi vae or popliteal area. The line of tattooing ends below the knee joint. The manner in which the three areas of lausae, fusi, and ulumanu are dealt with is shown in figure 335.

Figure 335.—Tattooing design; front and inner surface of thigh (lausae, fusi and ulumanu).

Front of right thigh. The completed talitu (10), fa'aila (11), and comb (12) are shown, forming the upper boundary of the lausae. The serrated lower boundary (6) of the lausae is carried around the outer side of the thigh to the front and continued obliquely upwards to the inner side of the thigh. The zigzag line from its function is termed the aso o le lausae. The four long panels (1) with detached outer ends are marked in and in order to balance the space, the outer ends are much wider than the inner. They are enhanced internally with plain and serrated lines, tern and centipede motifs. The upper line (7) is then continued from the back to form the upper boundary and the whole area filled in solid. The fa'aila o le talitu (11) and the fa'aila o le auanga (1) thus stand out in a dark background. The belt area (fusi) is defined above by continuing the plain line (15) from the back, upwards and parallel with the serrated margin of the lausae. The line is termed the aso o le fusi and is a continuation of the external upper boundary line of the popliteal area. page 652The lower boundary of the belt is formed by continuing the lower boundary line (16) of the popliteal area around the outer side of the knee and then with a slightly upward inclination to about the level of the attachment of the knee cap to the shin bone (tibia). Just on the outer side of the knee cap ligament, the serrated line (2) termed aso o le tuli (line of the knee) is carried obliquely upwards and inwards to gradually approach the other boundary line (15) at the upper end. From the upper and lower boundaries, the belt area is a continuation anteriorly of the outer dark part of the atingivae. The upper part of the belt area is filled in with panels (3) which owing to the narrowness of the area are continuous and not laterally spaced as in those of the auanga (1). The panels are internally enhanced as shown and in the middle and lower parts of the area, smaller fa'aila panels are made to break the dark color which is filled in and becomes continuous with the outer dark part of the atingivae. The birds' head area (ulumanu) consists of the remaining portion between the belt on the outer side and the innermost longitudinal line (13) on the back of the thigh termed the aso o le atingivae. The lower boundary is formed by bringing the lower border line (16) of the popliteal area around the inner side of the knee and inclining it slightly upwards to meet the inner boundary of the belt on the knee cap ligament. A line (4) termed the aso o le ulumanu (line of the birds' head) is made parallel with the serrated border (2) of the belt. The birds' head area defined by the lines (4) and (13) is carefully enhanced with spaced horizontal panels (5) extending across the area from the inner border. The panels are internally enhanced with centipede, caterpillar, tern and serrated line motifs. Between the panels, lines parallel with the inner border form vertical panels (8) internally enhanced in a manner similar to the horizontal panels. From the outer line of the vertical panels triangular pandanus leaf edge or pandanus male flower motifs are formed with their apices directed outwards. At the lower end of the area, the motifs of the inner part of the atingivae (See fig. 334) are carried forward on the inner side of the knee (9) and are ended by two vertical plain lines (12) with pandanus male flower triangles to their outer side. Two fa'aila rectangles are formed to the outer side again, and the rest of the area not occupied by panels or fa'aila is filled in with tapulu.

It is natural to assume that tattooing as serving a decorative purpose, receives more attention in the parts that are likely to meet the eye. Of the thigh areas described, the upper and external parts are the least artistic while the lower front, inner, and back parts receive considerable attention in the use of various motifs.

The Samoans themselves give the reason that the darker upper area is covered by the kilt but that in sitting cross-legged in the kava circle and meetings with the kilts tucked up to free the knees, the lower anterior and inner surfaces of the thighs with the belt and bird's-head areas were well exposed. Good tattooing had thus an excellent chance of being displayed and admired. The Trochus (shell) triangles and the atingi vae were seen from the back and the common habit of wearing the kilt short at the back appears to originate from the natural vanity of displaying the decoration of those areas. The extra attention to detail by the younger school is well shown by Faioso's chart of the thigh areas. (See figure 336.)

The pubic area (punialo). The term punialo under the form of pungialo has been given by Handy (14, p. 26) as a white sea bird, but her informant must have mixed it up with the ngongo or white tern motif. It has been seen that the aso fa'aifo lines descend to terminate or form the boundaries of the page 653back patterns when produced forward. They descend towards the pubis on either side. The middle part of the abdomen between the descending lines is the alo or belly. The tattooed triangle base upwards is put in to close (puni) the (alo) space and hence the name of puni alo. From its name, the punialo was probably at one time always filled in last of the important areas but later became used as a primary endurance test though the name is quite applicable when made by itself.

A pattern is shown in figure 333 b, 2. Serrated lines and other motifs may be used and it is for filling in the interior of the triangle that the cross-hatching termed fa'a'upenga (like a net) is used. After finishing it, any side lines that fall short are produced to reach the sides of the triangle.