The Maori Canoe
"Takitumu" (sometimes styled "Takitimu")
"Takitumu" (sometimes styled "Takitimu")
This was another vessel of the historic fleet, and of which we have a more satisfactory account. In this case we have a full description of the canoe and the names of its fittings and appurtenances, such as was not preserved, apparently, in connection with any other vessel.
The "Takitumu" or "Takitimu" canoe was made at the Island of Hawaiki (Tahiti) by certain clans or family groups that had been defeated in tribal warfare. Their lands had been taken by others under the sway of Tamatea-ariki, a chief of some importance. Hence the defeated families resolved to construct a vessel for deep-sea voyaging and seek a new home in Aotea-roa, the far-off land discovered by Kupe in former times, the location of which was well known. In old traditions this land was said to be situated at tiritiri o te rnoana, an expression denoting the vast ocean spaces, or remoteness. A tree known as Te Puwhenua was selected wherefrom to fashion a canoe. This was a Maori custom, the assigning of special names to large or otherwise remarkable trees, such as might be used for canoes, or whereon bird-snares were set every season. The tree is said to have been felled by means of digging round its base—a very primitive method. When the hull and other timbers had been dubbed out, they were buried in a large trench dug in the earth, where they remained for months, when they were taken out placed on platforms, and covered. These processes were for the purpose of seasoning the timbers. When hauled to the coast, the smaller timbers were placed in the hull and there secured, while a long pole was lashed fore and aft on the top of the hull, which pole served as a means of steadying and guiding the hull as it was hauled along over the skids. The hull was in four pieces, butt-joined (haumi tuporo)—which fact seems to imply that the timber-trees available were by no means long-barrelled. Another version states that the hull was composed of three pieces. Six pairi were hewn out for the vessel. This term pairi is explained as another name for the rauawa, or side boards. Six of these would mean three on either side; but another version is that "Takitumu" had four pairi on each side, which would mean that the dugout hull was but shallow, as was usual in eastern Polynesia. We know rauawa and oa as Maori names for top-strakes, but Williams's Maori Dictionary gives pairi as denoting wash boards at the bow of a canoe.
The canoe was then fitted up; the top-strakes, thwarts, and other timbers were fixed and lashed. Another authority says that the page 405vessel had three strakes or tiers of planks on either side. This is quite possible, as shown in the construction of the canoes of Tahiti in Cook's time.
When the vessel was launched on the waters of Pikopiko-i-whiti it was seen that she trimmed well—was in no way lopsided. The prow divided the water well; the water did not pile up against the cutwater, as it does when that part is not constructed on proper lines. When it was seen that the vessel rode well, a number of canoes assembled for a race on the waters of Pikopiko-i-whiti, which are protected from the ocean by a reef of rock. Among those canoes were "Tainui," "Te Arawa," and "Matatua"; and the people gathered on the hill Puke-hapopo in order to view the race. "Taki-tumu" turned out to be the swiftest of the canoes, and it was at this time that she was given that name. Soon after this occurrence the "Arawa," "Tainui," "Mamari," "Karaerae," "Horouta," and other vessels left for New Zealand. "Takitumu" left some time later under the chief Tamatea, for he and his friends had managed to gain possession of the vessel. Some of them came hither in her while those of her rightful owners who came seem to have occupied a subordinate position.
Prior to the final launching of the vessel for her voyage, she was hauled to the turuma (latrine) at Titirangi, where certain ritual was recited over the vessel to render her tapu, for she was about to be placed under the protection of the gods, and certain objects representing those gods placed on board her. A number of ritual chants were recited by the priests Rua-wharo and Te Rongo-patahi in order to influence winds and ocean currents in favour of the vessel—to calm the ocean and produce favourable conditions generally. The ritual recited over "Takitumu" includes appeals to many gods, and the language employed is of a sacerdotal and archaic nature. It is published in the original in vol. 4 of the Memoirs of the Polynesian Society, paraphrases being also given. The true inwardness of all these invocations is that the Maori of former times possessed the greatest faith in the powers of his gods. In any serious undertaking he placed himself unreservedly under the protection of those gods, and believed that no success could be his unless he received their aid. With that aid he believed that he could accomplish anything, and it was this faith that produced the most daring, self-reliant, and resourceful ocean navigators of whom we have any record—the courageous explorers and sea-rovers who broke out innumerable ara moana, or sea-roads, and cross-hatched the vast area of the Pacific Ocean with the wake of their swift craft.
page 406When "Takitumu" was ready for sea, Tamatea, inquired of the people, "E hoa ma! No wai te korou tu ki te haere, no wai te korou fioho?" ("O friends! Whose is the desire to go, whose the desire to stay?") Then it was arranged as to who should go to Aotea-roa in "Takitumu," and the symbols of the gods Kahukura, Ruamano, Tuhinapo, Tama-i-waho, Rongomai, Tunui-a-te-ika, and Hine-korako were put on board. All these atua (spirit gods) represent celestial phenomena—meteors, the rainbow, &c. The presence of these symbols of the gods, and the recital of ritual invocations over the vessel, rendered it so remarkably tapu that no cooked food could be carried on it, inasmuch as that commodity has, in Maori estimation, a most polluting effect. Its presence would cause the gods to abandon the vessel, to withdraw their protection, thus exposing craft and crew to every known mischance, and practically certain destruction. For in the ritual pertaining to such important undertakings, as this the Maori addressed invocations to the greatest of all gods, Io, the Supreme Being, to whom the origin of everything is due, to whom no offerings may be made, of whom no symbol may exist.
It seems evident that, as the Maori conception of the Supreme Being was pitched upon a singularly high plane of thought, a condition preserved only by restricting the cult and its ritual to the highest class of priesthood, the people naturally turned to inferior gods with whom they could be on more familiar terms. Of these they might carry about material symbols or representations; to them offerings might be made. They also had aria, or visible forms, such as the rainbow, comets, meteors; also more material forms, such as lizards, birds, and fish. The same feeling that prompted the Maori to evolve gods with whom he might come into closer contact is distinctly noticeable in the Christian religion.
In addition to the gods already mentioned, others were placated and induced to assist the voyagers in crossing the ocean on a journey of over two thousand miles. Among these were Arai-te-uru, Hine-Kotea, Hine-makehu, Harua-tai, Hine-korito, and Hine-huru-huru. The first of these is a sea-god, a demon or supernatural being; some at least of the others are personified forms of various natural phenomena. The second, third, and fifth are the fair Moon Maidens. Then, again, the hordes of Tutara-kauika and Te Wehenga-kauki (emblematical names of whales and other ocean monsters) are said to have guided, preceded, followed, and surrounded "Takitumu" as she sailed down the southern seas to the land-head at Aotea-roa. In these old traditions of former happenings we ever find such curious myths as these. Hence we are told how, apart from sailing directions page 407followed for generations, amazing assistance was derived from these supernatural beings: how Kahukura (personified form of rainbow) gleamed in the skies ahead as a guide during the daytime; how at night he returned to the vessel, his place being taken by Hine-korako (personification of some lunar phenomenon); how Ruamano led the vessel, and the ocean hordes acted as guardians on either side, while Harua-tai kept in her wake to ward off all danger from that direction. Little wonder that "Takitumu" safely crossed the rolling breast of Hine-moana and made her landfall under alien skies!
We are told that Te Rongo-patahi, Ruawharo, Tupai, and Kohu-para were the tohunga, or priestly adepts, who went to the tapu cave known as Te Kohurau, where the gods (i.e., the symbols of the gods) were kept, and these were placed on board "Takitumu." Of these gods perhaps Kahukura (a rainbow-god) was deemed the most important, for we are told that "Takitumu" was brought ashore and hauled on to the turuma (latrine) of Titirangi, the home of Tamatea at Whangara, in order that Kahukura might embark on her. To induce an atua (god) of the standing of Kahukura to take up his quarters on the vessel it was necessary for that vessel to be placed on a tapu place, or a place not likely to be desecrated in after-times by careless strollers or carriers of cooked food; and also certain ritual had to be chanted by the priests to locate the gods whose presence was desired at the stern of the vessel. Thus the canoe was hauled up until her stern rested on the turuma. Whereas some of the vessels that came to Aotea-roa were noa (common, void of tapu), "Takitumu" is said to have been a vessel rendered wholly tapu from bow to stern, so that no cooked-food supplies could be carried on her, the crew subsisting on dried food products and fish caught at sea during the voyage.
page 408We now meet with a curious account of the treatment of these so-called gods. Although material symbols of these beings appear to have been preserved, and to have been placed on board the vessel, yet they seem to have been viewed essentially as spirit gods: they were confined in vessels specially made for the purpose. In these vessels they were kept confined during the night, but on fine days the vessels were opened to enable the spiritual guardians to come forth and take the air. Small elevated stages (kauwhata) were provided for their accommodation at such times, one for each atua. It is not clear as to whether the material symbols of the gods were placed on such platforms or not.
The vessels containing the atua, or symbols thereof, are termed taha rakau. Taha describes a gourd vessel, but these "wooden gourds" were made by carefully shaping, hollowing out, and fitting together two pieces of wood, each forming half a gourd-shaped vessel. Near the edges of each half holes were bored, and through these were passed the cords by which they were lashed together. The join was then covered with a vegetable gum, and the outside of the vessel painted red with ochre; the orifice was provided with a lid or cover.
The persons appointed to serve those atua, to attend to them, were Te Rongo-patahi, Rua-wharo, Tupai, Kohupara, Kaewa, Puhi-whanake, Mokinokino, and Whatuira. To these adepts were assigned the two stern thwarts of "Takitumu," the place where the gods were located. Of these adepts, Kohupara and Tupai were the experienced deep-sea navigators, whose knowledge came from the days of the sojourn at Tawhiti-roa, hence the position assigned to them in the vessel. The two thwarts ahead of them were occupied by Tamatea-ariki and his folk.
Kaewa was the bearer and caretaker of the fire-generating implements, the kaunoti and hika, the special name of the latter being Te Hika puaroa, named after the star called Puaroa, which is a tapu star, and the aspect of which resembles the faint wisp of smoke seen when fire is obtained by the hika or friction process. The name of the kaunoti, or grooved piece, was Te Ra Kura.
Puhi-whanake and Whatuira were the astrologers and weather experts who discerned the signs of stormy and fine weather, who scanned the moon and sun, that the bow of the vessel might be kept directed to the land. They were specially watchful at night, and the stars watched by them as aids to navigation were Atutahima-Rehua, Tautoru, Puanga, Karewa, Takurua, Tawera, Mere-mere, Matariki, Kopu, Tama-rereti, and Te Ikaroa. These were the page 409stars by means of which "Takitumu" was guided hither from Tawhiti-nui, at Hawaiki.
The special task of Kohupara and Tupai was the care of the gods, lest some of them decamp—the closing of the vessels containing them, and the opening of those vessels in daytime, apart from such times as it might be considered desirable to allow them to roam abroad. With that twain only lay the arranging of such matters.
Mokinokino had the care of the food-supplies for the priestly adepts; he supplied them with food throughout the voyage of "Takitumu" across the ocean, such food-supplies being stored at the bow of the vessel.
Te Rongo-patahi and Rua-wharo were the priests appointed to despatch the gods on any quest or task deemed desirable.
We are told that "Takitumu" was provided with twenty-six thwarts. If this is correct they must have been placed remarkably close together. With his well-known faculty for preserving unimportant details, the Maori has retained the names of most of these thwarts, as also those of many other fittings of the vessel. The name of the principal person or persons of those who occupied each thwart and its attendant space of the hull has also in many cases been remembered.
(1.) | Te Ra-kura: This was the name of the thwart nearest the stern of "Takitumu." It was occupied by the three priestly adepts Te Rongo-patahi, Rua-wharo, and Tupai. |
(2.) | The next thwart was called Te Paerangi. |
(3.) | The next was Te Paetaku. Tamatea-ariki and his family occupied this part. He was the leader and principal chief. |
(4.) | The next was Rakau-amoamo; occupied by Kahu-tuanui, Hape-ki-tuarangi, and Taikehu. |
(5.) | The next was Rakau-whatawhata. Tamatea-kota was the principal person. |
(6.) | Next was Te Pia-tangi-rere. Tuai-te-rangi and others occupied it. |
(7.) | Next was Maire-kura; occupied by Kohupara, Mokinokino, and others. |
(8.) | The next was Te Ata-a-kura. |
(9.) | Then came Manutahi. These two (8 and 9) were occupied by Tutakahinahina, Puhi-whakaawe, Te Rautahi, Moko-moko, and others. |
(10.) | The next was Maire-hau. Rongo-mahaeata was the principal person. |
(11.) | The next was Te Puwhenua.page 410 |
(12.) | The next was Paekawa. The principal occupier was Moko-nui-a-rangi. |
(13.) | Next came Rere-moana. Hautu-te-rangi and others occupied it. |
(14.) | Then came Tiritiri-o-te-moana. |
(15.) | Then Ruku-moana; occupied by Rerehu-rangi and others. |
(16.) | The next was named Aotea-roa. |
(17.) | The next was Horonuku-atea; held by Te Rangi-katatau and companions. |
(18.) | The next was Horonuku-rangi; occupied by Ira-kai-putahi and others. |
(19.) | The next was Ahuahu. |
(20.) | The next was Maui-taha. |
(21.) | The next was Maui-pae; occupied by Kaewa and others. |
Here we have a list of twenty-one thwart-names given, and are told that the names of five have been forgotten. The names of twenty-two of the crew are included; others are given later on in the narrative.
Men were now selected for various duties to be performed during the voyage. The greater number were paddlers, whose duties not only consisted of propelling the canoe when a sailing-wind failed, but also of a strenuous use of their paddles in a rough sea. Each man was provided with two paddles. At the stern were located resolute adepts to attend to four large oars used in steering and controlling the vessel. Two of these were hoe whakatere (steer-oars), the other two were termed hoe matua. Other skilful adepts were stationed at the bow to manipulate the long paddles or oars termed hoe whakaara and hoe matua. The former were used in some way that tended to keep the bow of the vessel up. Other active and practised men were told off to attend to the two sails, the two bailingwells, and the two anchors, as occasion demanded. The stern sail was named Te Haeata-o-te-rangi; the forward sail was Pari-nuite-ra. The two ropes of the former were named Tangaengae and Takerekere: of the latter, one rope was Te Aka-rinoi; the name of the other has been forgotten; but the huapae (?sprit or boom) of this sail was called Te Pae-taku, while that of the stern sail was Toko-ahuru. The mast had two stays. Each bailing-well (puna wai) was provided with wooden bailers, large and small, the larger ones, named Auru-moana and Harewa, being adorned with carving. There was one anchor kept at the bow of the vessel—it was a punga-korewa, or sea-anchor; the other, kept at the stern, was a punga-whakawhenua, or ground-anchor. The latter was named Horumoana, being a much heavier anchor than that of the bow. Each page 411anchor had two ropes or cables attached to it: those of Horu-moana were named Marohi and Mawake; those of the small anchor were not named.
Another account states that the two huapae of "Takitumu" were named Tataurutahi and Tatau-uruora, which are names of two lunar months of the Maori year. It is not clear as to what these huapae were. Some apply the term to the fore-and-aft beams or poles of an outrigger, between float and hull. It is really a generic term applied to timbers of many structures, but only, apparently, to timbers in a horizontal position, or nearly so. (Cf. kurupae, pae, paepae.) Thus if applied to a sprit or boom of a sail, then that sail must have been a lateen sail. It would not, presumably, be applied to the almost vertical sprit of a ra kautu, or upright sail.
This same account says that "Takitumu" had two toko, or masts, named Toko-huru-nuku and Toko-huru-rangi. There were two taura huti (hoisting-ropes), and four taura whakahaere (controlling-ropes): these were evidently for manipulating the sails. Her two puhi, or feather decorations, were Puhi-rere and Puhi-whakaawe.
Two korere were fixed, one for each side of the canoe. The korewa timbers (outrigger floats) were very light timber. The purpose of the korewa was to prevent the canoe capsizing, or, in the event of a capsize, to facilitate its being righted by the crew in the water. The korewa are said to have been named Paepae-moana, but this has not been verified by the sages of the school of learning.
The above account, given by an old native of much learning in tribal lore, seems to fix korere as a name for the outrigger as a whole, korewa being applied to the floats. If this is correct, then we have the statement that "Takitumu" was a double outrigger canoe. The double outrigger seems to be now unknown in Polynesia, but there is some evidence to show that it was formerly employed in that region. Possibly it has given way to the single form in comparatively modern times.
There is a mention of affixing certain parts (presumably planks), alluded to as paewai and "coverings of the gunwale," which were probably some form of wash-boards to prevent the surge of waves lapping over the sides of the vessel. In another account we have references to some contrivances, apparently for a similar purpose, termed taupa karekare wai, or spray-guard, and pare arai wai turuturu. The precise manner in which these planks were fixed is by no means clear, but one is said to have been lashed to the gunwale in such a position as to throw off any wave surging up the side of the vessel. One would suppose that any projecting plank would interfere with the use of paddles; but, unfortunately, we are now unable to page 412obtain explanations of this and some other puzzling features. A similar plan is adopted in the construction of some of our concrete walls in harbour-works.
Another contrivance for the comfort of the crew of "Takitumu," and which seems to have been a common usage with deep-sea voyages, was an awning (called the mahau) placed over the canoe. This shelter must have been of the greatest service when bad weather was encountered at sea; it is mentioned in several old narratives, including the voyage of Kahu from Cook Strait to the Chatham Islands. In making this awning, uprights, termed tokotu, were fixed to the sides of the canoe, then rods were bent and lashed to these uprights so as to form a series of arches over the hull; these curved rods being known as whiti, torowhiti, and whiti tu. Small, long rods, termed kaho, to serve as battens, were lashed in a horizontal position to the curved rods, and over this framework were drawn the huripoki, hipoki, or uhirau (covering-mats). These were either woven mats or sheets of ante (bark-cloth of Polynesia). In the tradition of the voyage of Kahu to the Chathams the awning is said to have been made of koaka, a name applied to coarse floor-mats made of Phormium leaves. These mats or sheets were drawn down the sides in bad weather, and so lashed, thus adding much to the comfort of the voyagers. In fine weather they are said to have been rolled up.
In one account of "Takitumu" it is said that the sail was provided with two kaupeka (yards or sprits), and that certain ropes from the masthead supported the upper kaupeka, both of which were attached loosely to the mast, so that the sail could be moved to any desired angle. This looks much like a description of the lateen sail. A further statement, that the sail could be lowered any desired distance by means of a rope, called the whitirea, passing through or over the masthead, recalls a Fiji usage.
Three skids, named Te Manu-tawhiorangi, Te Take, and Pakeketaiari, were carried on "Takitumu." In landing operations the first-named was the first laid down, it being possessed of certain superior powers as a skid, doubtless because some form of ritual had been recited over it.
Owing to the intense tapu of "Takitumu," it is said that no supply of cooked food could be carried in her; hence the sea stores consisted of dried foods only, the principal items being dried fish and shell-fish. Water was carried in vessels of various kinds: bags made of seaweed, and wooden vessels, probably of bamboo, were employed.
The other vessels of the fleet are said to have left Hawaiki for New Zealand before "Takitumu," the latter being prevented from sailing for some time by strong westerly winds. The crew came to page 413the conclusion that those who had preceded them had raised the wind by their magic arts, so as to prevent "Takitumu" following them. When the main fleet encountered rough seas the crews made a similar charge against the "Takitumu" folk—so ready is the Maori to ascribe any misfortune to magic.
When "Takitumu" reached Rarotonga it was learned that the other vessels had called there and had left for New Zealand, with the exception of "Aotea," which canoe is not known to have called at that place. When our voyagers arrived at some place in mid-ocean known as Tuahiwi nui o Hine-moana (Great Ridge of Hine-moana) they encountered remarkably rough seas, which are said to be a common feature of that region. Here myth and superstition again enter into the narrative, in the means employed for quelling those rough seas, and so enabling "Takitumu" to proceed in safety. At this serious crisis Te Rongo-patahi and Tupai, two priestly adepts, took charge of the situation. They produced two tapu stone adzes named Te Awhio-rangi and Whiro-nui, ceremonial implements employed in certain ritual performances, in which they were "waved" to the gods, much as an offering of food is held out in the hand and waved towards the spirit gods in space. These sacerdotal stone adzes were now employed by the priests to (metaphorically) cut a passage for the vessel through the great waves that are said to have "stood up like cliffs." A long invocation or charm was chanted by the two adepts to calm the raging seas. The performance is stated to have had the desired effect, and our voyages arrived safely at Whanga-paraoa, on the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand. In a popular account of this voyage, published many years ago, it is stated that the crew suffered great hardships from hunger, but in the genuine tradition as preserved by adepts no mention is made of such hardships.
In making the run from Rarotonga to New Zealand we are told that the bow of the vessel was directed toward the setting sun, moon, and Venus, or just to the left of them. Presumably the voyagers would also steer by observing the wind and the roll of the waves. The dangers of this mode of navigation would be such as those encountered in eastern Polynesia by Whatonga and others, and by Mariner and his companions near the Tongan Group—namely, dense sea-fogs and lack or change of wind.
Our voyagers did not remain at Whanga-paraoa, where they found the crews of "Tainui" and "Te Arawa," for the land was occupied by a numerous people of the Toi tribes, descendants of the aborigines and of previous immigrants from eastern Polynesia. They proceeded in their vessel to the North Cape, thence to Hokianga, where they page 414lived for some time. Leaving there, they returned down the east coast, and went right on to Port Nicholson, then occupied by the Ngai-Tara Tribe. From there they proceeded to the South Island, where most of them settled, and of which they are said to have been the first inhabitants—a statement that may certainly be doubted.
The "Takitumu" canoe is said to have been taken back to the islands by one Taka-ahi—a statement corroborated by Rarotongan tradition; but we know not who his companions were, save that Rongokako was one of them.
In one account of the coming of "Takitumu" it is said that she came down the east coast, her crew being in search of Te Mahia-mai-Tawhiti (north of Hawke's Bay). Having passed Torouka and Te Ika-a-Tauira, they saw Waikawa and Kahutara loom up, when Ruawharo stood up and cried, "This is Te Mahia." As they approached, Nuku-taurua was seen projecting out. Here Rua-wharo and others landed and settled. They opened up and deposited here some earth or gravel that had been brought from Te Mahia at Tawhiti (Tahiti Isle), and performed some ceremonies. Next morning a whale was seen stranded on the beach. When they left their far-off island home the mother of Rua-wharo had said to him and his brother, "At the place where a whale is cast ashore you two must settle."