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Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition: During the Years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842. Volume One.

Chapter VII. — Chili

page 66

Chapter VII.
Chili.

Chili (continued)—Journey into the Interior—Biloches—Casa Blanca—Geological Formation—Curacovi—Cuesta de Zapata—Cuesta del Prado—Roads—Transportation of Goods—Beggars—Plain of Maypo—Cordilleras—St. Jago—Mint—Library—Amusements—Fashions—Market—Climate—Excursion to the Cordilleras—Mountain Scenery—Snow——Guanacoes—Heat—Return to St. Jago—Maypocho—Journey to San Felipe—Quillota—Town of San Felipe—Copper Mines—Earthquakes—Population of Chili.

Previous to my arrival at Valparaiso, the naturalists and some officers on board the Peacock and Relief had made excursions into the interior. On my arrival, I allowed all those who could be spared, and were desirous of visiting Santiago, sufficient leave to make the trip. Several set out for that city, and some with a view of extending their journey to the Cordilleras beyond.

The bilocheros were eager for opportunities to hire their biloches, a vehicle somewhat resembling a double gig, which is generally used for travelling in Chili. They have a most rickety and worn-out appearance; almost every part appears mended with cords made of hide. They accommodate two passengers; and the time required between Valparaiso and the city (Santiago), is about eighteen or twenty hours. In the shafts a horse is put; a postilion rides one on the left, and sometimes another is placed on the right, both being fastened to the vehicle by lassos of raw hide proceeding from the saddle. Each vehicle is attended by three bilocheros or drivers, with a drove of twelve or fifteen horses, forming quite a cavalcade.

The bilocheros are very expert at their business. They are excellent riders, having been brought up to this exercise from their infancy, and understand managing their horses, though in a rude way. Their horses are small, but spirited, and bear fatigue well. Their usual speed is about nine or ten miles an hour. Few equipages can compare with these crazy machines, driven, as they sometimes are, pell-mell up hill and down dale, with all their accompaniments of horses, guachos, &c.; and it affords no small amusement to those on foot, to witness the consternation of the affrighted passengers, in momentary expectation of a break-down. It is a difficult matter to acquire composure, on seeing the numerous temporary lashings, giving ocular proof that accidents have been frequent, however well satisfied one may be with the skill of the conductor. Fortunately the road is excellent, though at this season (May) it is divested of much of its beauty from the want of vegetation. The interest is, page 67however, carried forward to the lofty peaks of the Andes, of whose summits occasional glimpses are had; and the eye glances over the surrounding scenery in the immediate neighbourhood, that would elsewhere be deemed grand, to rest on some high and towering peak. Among these the peak of Tupongati is the most noted, ranking, since the measurement of King, as next in height to the Himmaleh mountains.

The first stopping-place is at Casa Blanca, a small pueblo of some five hundred inhabitants, where travellers usually sleep. The accommodations were good, having been recently much improved. In the neighbourhood is the only tract of woodland to be found in this part of the country. The elevation of Casa Blanca is five hundred and ninety-eight feet above the level of the sea.

The road from Casa Blanca next passes through Curacovi, a small pueblo, where the trap rock first makes its appearance, and then over a high ridge, called the Cuesta de Zapata. This terminates the first plain, and divides it from the second, of similar character, which extends to the Cuesta del Prado. It is passed over by a zigzag road, and was found to be two thousand three hundred and ninety-four feet high. On reaching the top, the view that presents itself is extensive and magnificent.

In front is the extensive plain of Maypo, with here and there a conical mountain standing alone on it. At the extremity of the plain rise the lofty peaks of the Andes, covered with eternal snow, some reaching above the clouds. They appear but a few hours' ride off, although at a distance of twenty leagues. On either side rise the high ridges of the Cuesta. Beneath lie grazing grounds, extending over the plain, and covered with flocks and herds. Variety and life are given to the whole by the view of the national road, on which are seen numbers of vehicles, mules, &c., threading their way up and down the mountain-side, laden with foreign and domestic products. This is the only road of any extent for wheel-carriages in the country. It is kept in good repair by convicts, who are seen working in chains. A moveable prison, or lock-up house, somewhat resembling the cages used in caravans of wild beasts, is used for their accommodation and security at night.

The heavy merchandise is for the most part transported in oxcarts of enormous dimensions. Their wheels are clumsy and without tires, and the whole frame is made strongly with timber pinned together. Their perpendicular sides and rounded tops are wattled with cane and covered with bull's hide. No iron is used in their structure; wooden pins and raw hide lashings seem to answer the purpose better. The yoke is set on the heads of the oxen, behind the horns, and fastened to them. The creaking of these carts may be heard for miles, as the drivers never think of greasing the axles to lessen the friction. They are generally drawn by four or eight oxen.

Lighter articles are transported by mules, and immense numbers of these animals are seen on the road at all times.

The mode of changing horses is truly characteristic of the country. The relays are made as soon as the shaft-horse tires; he is quickly page 68taken out, and one of the drove caught with a lasso, and put in his place, when on they go. These relays occur every eight or ten miles; the only relief the poor horses have is a trot out of harness, and without a load. The bilocheros seldom dismount; all is done on horseback. On going up hill, a third or even a fourth horse is soon hitched to the vehicle to assist the draught. The horses are all in good condition, and it is not a little remarkable that they should be so, for I understood that their only food at this season was chopped straw. The teamsters and guachos themselves are equally abstemious. They live mostly upon bread and their favourite chica, which is made from the grape, and resembles cider; but after it has passed through a fermentation, it is quite intoxicating. The mud huts or ranchos, on the roadside, are filled with happy and contented faces.

Begging is common on the road to the city, and is quite a business. The beggars let themselves to the highest bidders, and value themselves according to their deformities. At Valparaiso two days are allowed in each week for begging.

The plain of Maypo, which reaches to the foot of the Cuesta del Prado, is extremely level, and is almost thirty miles in width, extending to the foot of the Cordilleras. The road leads nearly in a straight line over it to the city of Santiago, which is situated on the eastern side of the plain.

The elevation of Santiago above the sea is fifteen hundred and ninety-one feet, upon the third step or plain from the coast. Its entrance is through avenues bounded by high adobe walls, which shut out all the view, except the Cordilleras, which tower above and beyond it.

The more the Cordilleras are viewed, the greater appears their attraction. They have at all times an imposing aspect from the neighbourhood of the city. Their irregular and jagged outline is constantly varying under the effects of light and shade. The rays of the setting sun, with the deepening shadows, throw the innumerable peaks into bold relief, and at times produce yellow and red tints, which give a remarkable character to the whole scene. The red tints are often accompanied with a green hue in the sky. The city is surrounded by many fine orchards, gardens, farms, and grazing grounds. The former being inclosed by high adobe walls, give it a rather unpleasant appearance, until the city is fairly entered, when the streets have a fresh and clean look. The city is laid out in squares. Its streets are well paved, and have good sidewalks. This fresh and clean appearance, we afterwards understood, was owing to a law, obliging all to whitewash their houses and walls once a year, a practice which gives a general uniformity, at least in colour, to the whole, and forms an agreeable contrast with the red-tiled roofs. The houses are mostly of one story, built in the form of a hollow square, from twenty to forty feet wide, round which the rooms are situated. The roof projects so as to form a kind of piazza or covered way. The gateway is usually large, and the rooms on each side of it are not connected with the rest of the building, but are rented as shops. Opposite to the gateway is the page 69centre window, guarded by a light and ornamental iron frame, painted green or richly gilt. The court-yard is usually neatly paved with small rounded pebbles from the bed of the Maypocho, arranged in fanciful forms: but in many cases they are laid out in flower-gardens, where roses and geraniums are seen in full bloom.

The river Maypocho runs through one portion of the city, and supplies it with water. In the centre of the city is the great plaza, where the public buildings are situated. These are built of a coarse kind of porphyry, obtained from the mountains, and are on a large scale. The cathedral and palace each occupy one side; in the centre is a fountain, with several statues of Italian marble; too small, however, in size, to have any effect in so large a square. All these buildings are much out of repair, having been at various times damaged by earthquakes.

The cathedral is very large and extensive. Its altar is decked with a great quantity of gold and silver. There are many paintings and hangings, among which is a large number of trophies, taken in their various wars. The niches are filled with wax figures, representing saints; and there are also the remains of two martyrs of the church, in a tolerably good state of preservation.

The place was originally built for the viceroy. It is now appropriated to the accommodation of the president, and the public offices. On the side opposite to the palace is a colonnade, which is not yet finished, and will occupy the whole side of the square. Under its portico are fancy and dry-goods shops, and between the columns various trades, or lace and fringe-makers, are at work. In the evening, this becomes a most busy scene. Females, with large flat baskets before them, are vending shoes, fruit, and fancy articles; others are employed in cooking cakes; and the whole, lighted up, as it is, with numerous candles, affords much amusement to the stranger.

The mint occupies a whole square; it has never yet been completed, and has also suffered greatly from earthquakes. The operation of coining is in the rudest and oldest form. The rolling and cutting are done by mule-power, and the oldest kind of fly-press, with a great screw-beam, having enormous balls at the end, is used. The dies employed are made from the male die, in the same way as with us, but they have not the same facilities, and want the modern improvements in the process. A toggle-jointed press was imported from France; but it was soon put out of order by the workmen, and there being no one to repair it, its use has been abandoned.

The library is extensive, containing several thousand volumes, which formerly belonged to the Jesuits, and many curious manuscripts relating to the Indians.

The amusements are not very remarkable. Santiago, however, boasts of a theatre, and a chingano. There appears to be little business doing, and it may be called a quiet city. The siesta is daily indulged in; even the shops are shut in the afternoon, and the city is as quiet as midnight. Towards the cool of the evening the alameda is resorted to. It is a beautiful walk, about a mile in page 70extent, well shaded, and occupies one bank of the river. It is planted with a double row of poplar trees, which seem to thrive well here. Streams of water are constantly running on each side of the walk. Every few yards stone seats are placed, which are at times filled with a well-dressed population. The alameda affords at all times a cool and pleasant promenade.

The evenings are generally passed at tertulias, in visiting socially, or in shopping in the colonnade. The inhabitants are much addicted to gambling. Monte is the game with the higher classes, whilst that of match-penny is the favourite of the lower orders. The Chilian women, are remarkable for their ease of manner, kindness, and attention to strangers. They are fond of diversions of any kind, but more particularly those of dancing and music, both of which are much practised. They seem extravagantly fond of music. Dancing they are taught very young. Most of them have good figures, and some would be called pretty; but their teeth are generally defective, which causes them soon to look old. Their costume varies little from our own, except that the ladies wear no bonnets.

The men follow the European fashions.

The dress of the lower order is a mixture of Spanish and Indian. They are fond of bright colours. Over their shirt and trowsers is worn a blue or brown poncha. A high-crowned and small-rimmed hat, tied on under the chin, over a bright cotton handkerchief on the head, completes their outfit. They are a well-disposed people, and good citizens, and have more the air of contentment than any other nation of South America.

The markets are well supplied. There is one large one near the banks of the Maypocho. It covers an area of four or five acres, and is surrounded by a low building, with a tile roof, supported by columns, under which meats of all kind are sold. The centre is reserved for vegetables, fruits, flowers, poultry, and small wares. The market-women are seen seated under awnings, screens, and large umbrellas, which are used to keep off the sun. The place is scrupulously clean, and has a pleasing effect.

The average price of a horse is twelve dollars, but some that are well broken are valued as high as those in the United States.

The climate of Chili is justly celebrated throughout the world, and that of Santiago is deemed delightful, even in Chili; the temperature is usually between 60° and 75°. The country round is extremely arid, and were it not for its mountain streams, which afford the means of irrigation, Chili would be a barren waste for two-thirds of the year. Rains fall only during the winter months (June to September), and after they have occurred the whole country is decked with flowers. The rains often last several days, are excessively heavy, and during their continuance the rivers become impassable torrents. At Santiago the climate is drier and colder, but snow rarely falls. On the ascent of the Cordilleras, the aridity increases with the cold. The snow was found much in the same state as at Terra del Fuego, lying in patches about the summits. Even the high peak of Tupongati was bare in places, and, page 71to judge from appearances, it seldom rains in the highest regions of the Cordilleras, to which cause may be imputed the absence of glaciers.

Several of our gentlemen made an excursion to the Cordilleras, in order to get information in their various departments. I regretted they were not provided with the necessary instruments for ascertaining heights. The party left Santiago in biloches, and travelled to the eastward five leagues, to the "Snow Bank," from which the city is supplied. The ascent was gradual, but quite constant, as no intervening ravines occurred. They then took horses, leaving their biloches to return. Their route after this lay up a valley. On the surrounding heights the guanacoes were seen in great numbers.

As they proceeded they found the middle region was marked by spiny plants, principally Burnadesia. The soil was found to be a mixture of loose earth and pieces of rock. On rising higher, the vegetation became almost wholly extinct. Places occurred, of an eighth of a mile in breadth, destitute of verdure of any kind. The party then ascended a ridge belonging to the main body of the Cordilleras, and, at an elevation of about ten thousand feet, they reached its summit. Here they had an extensive view of all the line of the snow peaks. That of Tupongati appeared the most conspicuous, although at a distance of eighty miles. The guide asserted that he could see smoke issuing from its volcano in a faint streak, but it was beyond the vision of our gentlemen. The peak itself, from this view of it, was quite sharp-pointed. The scene immediately around them was one of grandeur and desolation; mountain after mountain, separated by immense chasms, to the depth of thousands of feet, and the sides broken in the most fantastic forms imaginable. In these higher parts of the Cordilleras they found a large admixture of the jaspery aluminous rock, which forms the base of the finest porphyries; also chlorite in abundance. The rock, likewise, contains fine white chalcedony, in irregular straggling masses. Trachytic breccia was observed in various places. The porphyry is of a dull purple colour, rather lighter than the red sand-stone of the United States. No traces of cellular lava were observed, nor of other more recent volcanic productions. No limestone was seen in the regions traversed by our parties; all the lime used at Santiago is obtained from sea-shells; nor were any proper sedimentary rocks seen.

Nothing could be more striking than the complete silence that reigned everywhere. Not a living thing appeared to their view.

After spending some time on the top, they began their descent; and, after two hours' hard travelling, they reached the snow line, and passed the night very comfortably in the open air, with their blankets and pillions, or saddle-cloths. Fuel for a fire they unexpectedly found in abundance: the Alpinia umbellifera answering admirably for that purpose, from the quantity of resinous matter it contains. Near their camp was the bank of snow before spoken of, from which the city has been supplied for many years. It covers several acres. The height they had ascended was about eleven page 72thousand feet, and the Cordilleras opposite them about four thousand feet higher. The view of the mass of the Cordilleras, in its general outline, was not unlike those of Mont Blanc and other mountains in Switzerland.

Mr. Peale went in search of the guanacoes, and succeeded in killing one nine feet in length, and four feet in height. They were found to frequent only the most inaccessible summits, and are said never to leave the vicinity of the' snow. They feed upon several small thorny bushes, which impart a flavour to their flesh, and a smell to their excrement, that may be distinguished at some distance from their places of resort. They make a peculiar sound when, alarmed, like that of the katydid (Gryllus). This animal is never hunted for the market, though its flesh is good. The Benzoar is often found in its stomach, and is highly prized among the natives and Spaniards as a remedy for various complaints. It is also used as a gum.

All the party suffered greatly from the heat of the sun's rays and the dryness of the atmosphere. Their faces and hands were blistered, and the nose and lips made exceedingly sore, while the reflection of the light from the snow caused a painful sensation to the eyes.

The next day they reached Santiago, whence they returned to the port, as Valparaiso is usually distinguished in the country.

Over the Maypocho, at Santiago, there is a substantial stone bridge, with five arches. For nine months of almost every year, the bed of the stream is nearly dry. At the time of our visit it was about two yards wide, and several inches deep; but in the winter and spring, during the melting of the snows, it becomes quite a torrent; and, from the damage that has been done in former times, they have taken the precaution to wall it in on the side of the city, towards the Cordilleras, for several miles, with stone and hard brick. When swollen, it is a quarter of a mile wide, rapid and deep, and would cut off the communication with the surrounding country were it not for the bridge.

The copper mines of San Felipe were visited by a party of the Expedition. The road passes through the town of Quillota, which is embraced within a circumference of three leagues. It contains several churches of simple construction. The "Calle Largo," the longest street, is upwards of a league in length. Its population is ten thousand inhabitants. The houses are all of one story, and are built of adobes, with thatched roofs. There is an abundance of fine building-stone, but in this land of earthquakes it is considered safest to use the lightest materials. Almost every house has a vineyard attached to it, the grapes of which were of good quality, and very abundant. At some places, although the vintage was half gathered, yet the crop still on the vines was such as would have been considered elsewhere an abundant yield. A portion of the grapes rot upon the vines, as the inhabitants have not the industry or inclination to manufacture them, although, by proper attention, they would yield a good wine. As it is, they only manufacture some into a hard and acid wine, called masta, or boil the juice down to the page 73favourite drink of the lower classes, called chicha, which somewhat resembles perry or cider in flavour. The small quantity that is not consumed is distilled into aguardiente, and disposed of at Valparaiso. Besides grapes, considerable quantities of wheat and Indian corn are cultivated. Apples, pears, and quinces are also raised. The former are inferior to our own; the latter much superior, and in great plenty.

Oranges were also abundant, but of indifferent flavour.

Quillota is well supplied with water from the river Concon or Aconcagua. The water is led through all the streets and gardens of the place. It is used for all household purposes as taken directly from the gutters, which are the recipients of dirt of every description from the town. For drinking, it is allowed to settle in large jars kept for the purpose.

The intercourse with strangers at Quillota has been much less than at Valparaiso or Santiago, and consequently they are less liberal, and more bigoted. This was particularly shown, about four years previous to our visit, by their burning, in the public square, a large number of Bibles in the Spanish language, along with a heap of immoral and indecent pamphlets, in the presence of the civil, military, and ecclesiastical authorities. These Bibles had been distributed by our countryman, Mr. Wheelwright, who has done so much by his enterprise in introducing the communication by steam along the western coast of South America.

The town of San Felipe is laid out with great regularity, in the form of a square, surrounded by extensive alamedas, which are planted with Lombardy poplars. The population is from twelve to thirteen thousand. In the centre of the town is a large open square, one side of which is occupied by the town-hall and offices connected with the municipality. Opposite are the church and barracks, and the remaining sides are occupied with shops and private dwellings. The houses are all of one story, and are in a good style of building. The better class of houses stand some distance back from the street, and are decorated tastefully with paintings in fresco on the walls. Roses and jessamines were seen in every court-yard, and the gardens are well filled with various fruits, apples, peaches, pears, grapes, pomegranates, oranges, lemons, and quinces; the latter are remarkably fine, and in great plenty. The houses, as in other parts of Chili, have no fire-places; in lieu of which they use brazeros, or pans of live coal, when heat is required.

The copper mines are near the summit of the first Cordillera, on the Mendoza road, and about three thousand feet above the level of the sea.

The part of this valley where they are situated is called La Vega of Jaquel. This is the principal smelting-place, the ore being brought here by mules from the foot of the mountain, down whose sides it is thrown from the mines. The descent is about two thousand feet, and very steep.

On the 21st May they set out on mules for the mines, accompanied by Mr. Alderson, and reached them about ten o'clock. Their first act was to change their boots for a pair of raw hide shoes, such page 74as are used by the miners, in order to insure a safer footing. They now entered the principal gallery, which was about seven feet high, and five broad, excavated for about twenty yards horizontally; it then divides into several branches, and these again into others, from fifteen to twenty yards in length.

The greatest extent of any one gallery is about thirty feet. The mountain has been penetrated horizontally to about four hundred feet, in the direction of north-east to east-north-east, as the veins run, and vertically to a depth of about one hundred and fifty feet. Each person was provided with a tallow candle, stuck in the end of a split stick six feet long, and caution was given not to lose sight of the guide, for the galleries, although small, are so numerous, and communicate with each other so frequently, that a person might easily be lost.

The ladders, or rather posts, by which the descents are made, are not a little dangerous.

There appears to be little system in working the mines, and little knowledge of the structure of the rock or the courses of the veins. Mr. Alderson mentioned that a few months previously they had been working for several weeks extending a shaft, without meeting a particle of ore to repay their labour, and they were just about giving up the search, when the mayoral, or master-workman, declaring he would have a last blow for luck, struck the rock with all his force. This detached a large fragment, and, to their surprise and delight, laid open a vein, which proved the largest and richest that had been worked for many years. From this it would appear that the employment is attended with much uncertainty; and after exhausting one of these treasure-deposits, there are no means or signs known to them, by which they can ascertain the best direction to take to discover another.

The manner of labour in the mines is in as rude a state as it was found in the agricultural branches of industry. A clumsy pickaxe, a short crowbar, a stone-cutter's chisel, and an oblong iron hammer of twenty-five pounds' weight, were the only tools. The hammer is only used when the ore is too high to be reached with the pick or crowbar.

The wages are small—from three to four dollars per month, in addition to their food. They are allowed to draw a third of their pay on the last Saturday of every month, and full settlement is made twice a year. They are supplied with clothing and other necessaries, out of which the agent makes a per-centage, and which is charged against their wages.

There is one admirable regulation of the Chilian government, that of not permitting liquors to be brought within a league of any mine, under a severe penalty, which is strictly enforced. The cost of the maintenance of each workman is not great; they are allowed as rations for breakfast four handfuls of dried figs, and the same of walnuts; value about three cents. For dinner they have bread, and fresh beef or pork. Small stores, as sugar and tea, they find themselves.

Having heard much about the rise of the coast, from the effects page 75of earthquakes, I was desirous of gaining all the information in relation to this subject. From the residents the accounts are so contradictory, that no correct intelligence can be obtained. The decrease in the depth of the bay can be accounted for, and undoubtedly is owing, so far as it has taken place, to the wash of the hills; and the formation of a new street which has been reclaimed from the bay, has given rise to the idea, and it is pointed out as having been built upon ground left dry by the earthquake of 1832. Several of our naturalists made a close examination of the coast in the neighbourhood, the result of which on the minds of all was, that there was no proof of elevation. That changes in the beaches, through the agency of the heavy rollers and the northers that yearly occur, are constantly going on, is quite evident; but these, as one would naturally suppose, increase the shore only in some places, while in others they are wearing it away.

Earthquakes do not appear to happen at any particular season. The great one of 1730 was in July; that of 1751, in May; and those of 1822 and 1835, both of which did much damage, in February.

Slight shocks of earthquakes are experienced very frequently throughout Chili. One during our stay, on the 28th of May, started every one from their beds, but the shock was not repeated. No peculiar state of the weather, or other phenomenon, seems to precede them. That of 1835 nearly destroyed the towns of Concepcion, Talcahuana, Arauco, Angeles, Coluna, Chillian, Talca, and Cauquenes. It was very slightly felt in Valparaiso, and scarcely at all further north, The sea receded in Valparaiso two feet, and returned immediately. The ground seemed to swell under the feet. In Juan Fernandez, it was very severely felt; and the following extract from the report of the then governor of that island to the supreme government, is interesting: "I was walking at the castle of Santa Barbara, with the commandant of the garrison, when we suddenly observed that the sea had come over the mole. Fearing great damage, I hastened to have the boats drawn from under a shed, and prepared for use. At the same moment we heard a loud roaring, as of thunder, and saw a white column, like smoke, rise from the sea, a short distance from the place called 'El Punto de Bacallao,' and then felt the earth move. The sea retired about two hundred feet, when it commenced returning with great violence. This time it carried nearly everything with it; broke down all the houses and huts but the one recently built of stone and mortar to contain provisions. Happily, this withstood its violence, although the water ascended more than six feet up its sides. It then retired again to its usual height. Constant shocks were felt during the night; and the sea, at the place before-mentioned, continued throwing up water and smoke like a volcano."

Chili abounds with volcanic mountains, but few of them are in an active state of eruption; which may account for the frequency of earthquakes. The peak of Tupongati is the only one in activity in this section. Our travellers to the Cordilleras were not fortunate enough to get a sight of it at night.

page 76

The population of Chili may be estimated at one million two hundred thousand.

Santiago contains about sixty thousand inhabitants, and is one of the few South American capitals, perhaps the only one, that is increasing in wealth and population. It has various private seminaries for both sexes, a national institute or college, on a liberal footing, an extensive hospital, a medical college, and a military academy. The Congress meets on the 1st of June every year, when the president delivers his message.

Valparaiso numbers thirty thousand inhabitants, and is one of the most flourishing sea-ports in the world. Its population has quintupled within the last twenty years, and it is rapidly advancing in every improvement, growing out of an increasing foreign commerce, and the enterprise of its inhabitants, fostered and encouraged as they are by government.

The mining districts are to the north, and the grain country to the south. Extensive flour-mills are now at work in Concepcion and its neighbourhood: the machinery is brought from the United States.

There is very little variation in the climate. During what is called the winter, the thermometer occasionally falls for a few hours to 52°, but the mean of it throughout the year, at mid-day, would be 65°. In the evening and morning, it is at 60°.