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Chapter XV.
Samoan Group.

The Samoan Group lies between the latitudes of 13° 30 and 14° 30 S, and the longitudes of 168° and 173° W The islands, as has been seen, agree m the general character of bung of volcanic structure, and having coral reefs, differing, however, in the modifications of these for mations which have been from time to time described The harbours are usually situated within the reefs, but Tutuila is an exception to this rule by the possession of the deep land locked basin of Pago Pago. This is, of all the ports, the one best adapted for the refitting of vessels; but Apia, in Upolu, is not so difficult of egress, and in consequence of its proximity to the fertile district of Aana, the most convenient for vessels seeking only a temporary anchorage and refreshment.

The approach to Pago Pago, and the other harbours of the Samoan isles, is not difficult, and as the soundings extend in some places for a distance beyond the reefs, vessels may drop at anchor in case of necessity.

The flood tide among these islands sets to the westward, beyond its influence, on the southern side of the islands, a current generally prevails to the eastward, while it runs westward on their northern side Vessels, therefore, when beating to windward, would find it to their advantage to keep on the southern side of the group, where there is not only a favourable current, but where the winds would be found more regular, and calms less frequent.

The climate of these islands may be termed variable, and there is much bad weather, particularly during the "winter months, when long and heavy rains, attended at times with high winds and page 180northerly gales, are frequent. Destructive hurricanes also occur, and of these one is still recollected which blew down the bread-fruit trees, and destroyed many of the houses.

The air is more moist than that of the Society Islands, and the vegetation in consequence more luxuriant. Thunder and lightning are often experienced, but during the summer months light winds and calms are the prevailing characters of the climate.

Some of our gentlemen made the remark, that, to judge from the time at which the bread-fruit was gathered, there must be a great difference between the seasons of this island and Tahiti; for when we arrived at Tutuila, that product was ripe and in abundance, although when we 1eft Tahiti, only a few days before, it was unripe and not to be had. The same remark was made in relation to the vi-apple (Spondias dlulcis). But, by comparing the voyages of Cook and Wallis, it would appear that the time of the year at which the bread-fruit is in season at Tahiti is not constant, for both these navigators found it in perfection, although they visited that island in different months. If there be a difference between the time of the ripening of the bread-fruit in the Society Islands and this group, the greater moisture and higher mean temperature of the Samoan climate will account for it.

The islands of the Samoan Group contain one thousand six hundred and fifty square miles, which are divided as follows, viz.:

The soil of all the islands is rich, and arises chiefly from the decomposition of volcanic rocks. At Tutuila, it was remarked that the vegetation was luxuriant, and the trees of large growth. At Upolu the forests seemed more sombre than those of Brazil, although the same kind of growth appeared to prevail.

The trees do not branch out until near the top, which renders it difficult to obtain botanical specimens. The trunks are covered, and even the summits of the trees sometimes overgrown, with the leaves of the scandent Flagellaria (Freycinetia), a climbing Piper, and other vines, as Hoyas, Convolvulus, &c. The lower part of the trunks are enveloped with ferns, of which there are many varieties, and with some species of Pothos, which give the whole ground a matted or woven appearance.

The woods in the interior of the islands are very thick, and often composed of large and fine trees; among them are tree ferns, a species of banyan (Pandanus) and several species of palms. Among other plants a species of Cerbera was observed, with beautiful clusters of large and odorous white flowers, which yielded a quantity of white viscous sap, that our botanist, Mr. Rich, thought might be page 181manufactured into caoutchouc. On the whole, the species of trees are much more numerous than at Tahiti, and the vegetation in consequence richer and more varied. The woods, however, are not enlivened by showy flowers, and the few of these that are seen are of a white or grayish hue, which is to be ascribed to then being but little exposed to the lays of the sun, m consequence of the umbrageous foliage. Many of the flowers seen on the ground were unknown to our botanist, as were several fruits.

Among the trees which have been named, that which struck us as most remarkable was the species of banyan (Ficus religiosa), called m these islands, Ohwa Some of these were seen, whose pendent blanches had taken root in the ground to the number of thousands, forming stems from an inch to two feet in diameter uniting in the main trunk more than eighty feet above the ground, and supporting a vast system of horizontal branches, spreading like an umnbrella over the tops of the other trees.

The bread fruit is the most abundant of all the trees, and grows here to a large size, the viapple, the cocoa-nut, and the wild orange are also found m great numbers, and at Tutuila a large lime-tree was seen in full bearing, which was said to have been planted before the arrival of the missionaries.

Among the most singular of the vegetable productions is the stinging-tree, of which the natives are much afraid, for if its leaves be touched, an eruption is produced, particularly if the skin be wet Its leaf is cordate, but quite smooth.

The arborescent ferns are not as numerous as at Tahiti, but grow to a larger size. The palms give a character of luxuriance to the country, from the variety of their foliage. Rattans ninety feet in length were seen running over the trees.

Bamboos and the wild sugar-cane were very common; the latter is used in thatching houses; the wild ginger also abounds.

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Of the wild nutmeg (Myristica), two species were seen, which are small trees, and are likely to be passed without notice, were it not for the peculiar manner in which branches grow out of the trunk, which is in whirls, at regular intervals, like the white pine (Pinus strobus) of our Northern States.

It was remarked that the character of the vegetation approached more nearly to that of the East Indies than of the Society Islands, and the leafless acacias were the type of those we afterwards saw in New Holland; but there are some plants which appear peculiar to these islands.

Many of the trees we have named, as well as other plants, are objects of cultivation; but the ground cleared for this purpose does not extend far from the coasts, near which all the villages are situated.

To clear the land, the bark is burnt off the trees, after which they are permitted to stand until they become dry, when they are cut down and used as fuel.

The cultivated plants and trees are bread-fruit (of which they have twenty varieties), cocoa-nut, ti (Dracæna), bananas, taro, paper-mulberry, tacca, from which arrow-root is made, and of which they have several sorts; sugar-cane, which is not made into sugar, but used only for thatching; coffee, ava (Piper mythisticum), sweet potato, pine-apple (Anaua), brought by the missionaries from the Society Islands, yams, the papaya, and tobacco in small quantities. The agave has not been introduced; but in a few years lemons and sweet oranges will be produced in great quantities from trees which have recently been planted.

To the cultivation of the tacca they pay little attention, yet the quality of the fecula (arrow-root) made from it, is said to be superior.

The missionaries are endeavouring to teach the natives the best mode of cultivating the sugar-cane and manufacturing it, and it is said that a few persons have adopted the new methods. At present they find a substitute for sugar in the root of the ti plant, which is baked m ovens, and yields a large quantity of saccharine juice resembling molasses.

Great attention is paid to the cultivation of the yam. They are planted in October, and are ripe in February and March. The vines run up the trees, and when they die, the root is known to be ripe. To plant them, they are cut, like the potato, into pieces containing eyes, which are laid in heaps and covered up until the sprout appears. The pieces are then set out at distances of about three feet from each other.

Hearing that there were some extensive savannas in Upolu, overgrown with the wild sugar-cane, at the east end of the island, a party visited it, but they saw nothing of the kind, except a few small patches of that plant.

There are no traces among these islands of any native quadruped, nor any other of the mammalia, except a species of bat (Pteropus ruficollis), which is very destructive to the bread-fruit. Swine have now become abundant, and the missionaries have introduced cattle, page 183which, are rapidly increasing, and will in a few years be in sufficient numbers for the supply of vessels. Horses have also been brought to the islands.

The first large quadruped ever seen by these islanders was a mule. With it they were much astonished, and it was considered so great a curiosity, that it was carried around the island of Upolu for the purpose of gratifying the natives with a sight of it. They gave it a name, signifying-the hog that travels over the ground.

Poultry of all descriptions is plentiful, and pigeons abound, which, however, are considered sacred, and not used as an article of food. Of the latter bird (Columba oceanica), between sixty and seventy specimens of different varieties were obtained: but it is remarkable that of all these, none were the same as those found in the Society Islands. There are but few birds of game, and none of the hawk genus. A philomel was pointed out by the missionaries as the principal singing bird, and the woods of Tutuila were filled with warblers. The note of the philomel, although much praised, did not appear agreeable to me.

The pigeon is commonly kept as a plaything, and particularly by the chiefs; for this purpose they are fastened to a stick by a thread about twelve feet in length. They are taught to fly from, and return to, the stick, and when well tutored to this feat, the possessor of the bird exhibits it with much pride and satisfaction. One of our officers unfortunately on one occasion shot a pigeon, which caused great commotion, for the bird was a king-pigeon, and to kill it was thought as great a crime as taking the life of a man. The people were not to be pacified until the interpreter told them that the officer belonged to "man of-war," which intelligence, together with a small present, satisfied them, and the matter was settled.

To justify their regard for them, we were told that when the inhabitants of Aana were driven away, about eight years since, by the people of Manono, the pigeons abandoned the district, but that upon their return to their homes, the pigeons again made their appearance in their former abodes.

Snakes were found in Upolu, and sea-snakes are reported to have been seen off the islands.

Fish are taken in the neighbouring waters in great abundance and variety. Besides other modes of taking them, they are caught on the reefs by women, who place baskets near the holes where they are accustomed to take shelter. They are also speared by torch-light, and taken in deep water by the hook. Among the sea-fish, mullets are very numerous, and are frequently seen leaping from the water in immense shoals.

One of the modes in which fish are caught by the Samoans was witnessed at Samatau. About a dozen canoes formed themselves into a ring, around what appeared to be a dark circular spot in the water, about six feet in diameter, and which was moving along with a slow and unequal motion. This was a shoal of the small fish called lou, which is about two inches in length. The shoal being thus surrounded, the circle of canoes was gradually lessened, until page 184the fish, finding themselves enclosed on all sides, ceased to move forward. Ai this moment the head-fisher, who was seen standing up in the canoe with a net in his hand, threw it dexterously over the shoal, upon which all the other men dove at once from the boats, and remained for several seconds under the water, where they secured the sides of the net. On reappearing, all regained their canoes except four, is who remained to take charge of the net, which, with its prize, they conveyed to the chief.

These islands furnish abundant supplies for the refreshment of vessels, but as yet there are few articles which can be rendered available in foreign commerce. Tortoise-shell, of which a little has at times been procured at Savaii, cocoa-nut oil, and arrow-root, are nearly all that can be procured in quantities beyond the immediate wants of the visitors. Caoutchouc, gum-arabic, castor beans, orrisroot, ginger, and coffee, might however, be easily added to the list of exports. In return for what they can furnish, the natives now look to objects of real utility; beads, jews-harps, &c., once so much in request, are now scarcely prized; and cotton cloth, writing-paper, and hardware, particularly needles, and other small articles of utility, are the kinds of manufactured goods which are most sought after.

The Samoan language is soft and smooth, and is the only one of the Polynesian dialects in which the sound of s is found. The letters that the missionaries have found necessary to adopt in order to write it, are only fourteen in number, viz., A B F G I L M N O P S T U V. In attempting to sound the words of other languages, they use L, instead of e, s for h, and p instead of b. The G has a nasal sound, as in ong.

It has nearly the same construction as the Tahitian; nevertheless the Samoan is far from being understood by the natives of the Society Islands. The Samoans say that they never can acquire it—"their laws are too stiff." The missionaries also have great difficulty in speaking it, and are liable to make many mistakes which appear absurd to the natives.

We have seen that it possesses the sibilant sound of s, and every one of the words terminates with a vowel.

A separate dialect is appropriate to the chiefs, all of whose actions, the parts of their bodies, &c., have different names from those of the common people.

Many of the Samoans leach the age of seventy or eighty years. There is, however, a great mortality among the young children, which is probably owing to their exposure to the weather. Those who survive grow up robust and healthy.

Among the diseases which afflict the adults, one of the most usual is a spinal affection, which results in caries and produces humpback. This is no doubt owing to the peculiar manner in which the children are carried. Catarrhs and bronchial disorders, occasioned by the exposed life of the natives, are prevalent, and a white resident died of phthisis during our stay. The dysentery, as an epidemic, is unknown, but sporadic cases of it occur, occasioned by imprudence in diet.

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There is an eruptive complaint, called ilamea, which covers many of the children under the age of ten years with sores, and which seems more particularly to attack the face and head. The mode in which it is treated is singular: the child is rubbed with the husks of the cocoa-nut, until all the scabs are removed; a soft preparation of the bread-fruit is then applied, after which they are washed. This operation is undergone every time they bathe, which is daily. When the bread fruit is not in season, a decoction of the husk of the cocoa-nut is used in its place.

The elephantiasis prevails to a great extent among men who are past the middle age; and some of the cases are truly frightful. There are also many instances in which women are affected by it. It does not appear to cause the least degree of pain. Among the reasons that have been assigned for the frequency of this disease are, the habit of eating their food without salt, and the use of cocoa-nut water; to which may be added exposure at night, and want of sufficient exercise. The latter cause, whether it be capable of producing this disease or not, unquestionably exists; for they are in the habit of sitting for hours with their legs bent under them, which must cause a stagnation of healthy circulation. Laziness, however, cannot be ascribed to them as a part of their national character, for they are disposed to exertion, and willing to be employed. When, therefore, they have received sufficient instruction, and civilisation has taught them new wants, they will probably become an industrious and thriving people.

Ophthalmia, which is supposed to arise from the reflection of the sun from the sandy beaches near which all their villages are built, is so prevalent, that, to speak within bounds, not less than a fifth part of the population is affected with it.^* In most cases it was observed to begin on the inner corner of the eye, whence it extends gradually over the pupil, until the sight is completely lost. As the disease advances, the thickness of the film increases, and when it has covered the eye, that organ becomes enlarged and appears to project. From appearances it would not be difficult to remove the film, and thus cure the disorder; but the natives have not made any attempt of the kind. Several cases of total blindness arising from this disorder were seen.

The venereal disease does not exist at Tutuila, and is hardly known in the other islands. This serves to prove how great a superiority this island possesses over Tahiti in the chastity of its females, who in general observe their marriage vow with strict fidelity.

Fevers are rare, and those of a remittent and intermittent type are unknown; in fact, the geological formation of these islands is by no means favourable to the generation of the miasmata that cause them.

Among all the Polynesian islanders, the men of Samoa rank, in point of personal appearance, second only to the Tongese; and many specimens of manly beauty are to be seen among them. As much cannot be said of the women, who are rather ill-formed and stout. When very young, however, some of them are pretty, and their colour is light, being little darker than that of a brunette or South American Spaniard. The girls are lively, have a good expression of countenance, and, what is rare in Polynesia, have some degree of bashfulness.

The average height of the men is five feet ten inches, and some of the chiefs, whose limbs are well rounded, would be called fine-looking men in any part of the world. Their features are not in general prominent, but are well marked and distinct, and are all referable to a common type. The nose is short and wide at the base; the mouth large and well filled with white and strong teeth, with full and wellturned lips; the eyes black, and often large and bright; the forehead narrow and high; and the cheek-bones prominent. It was observed that some of them had the eye turned up at the outer corner like the Chinese. Of beard they have but little, but their hair is strong, straight, and very black; instances, however, were observed, where it had been turned to a carroty red, by washing it with lime-water for the purpose of destroying the vermin (Pediculus humanus).

When the islands were first visited, the natives were represented as ferocious and treacherous. This arose in a great degree from the bloody conflict they had with the boats of La Perouse's squadron; and the opinion was kept up by the just resentment they in some cases manifested for wrongs committed on them by lawless visitors. The instance of Opotuno, however, shows that this idea of their character is not entirely without foundation. Viewed in a more favourable light, they are, as we found them, kind, good-humoured, intelligent, fond of amusements, desirous of pleasing, and very hospitable. Both sexes show great kindness and love for their children, and age is so much respected that only old men are admitted to council. As a shade on this picture, they are indolent, covetous, fickle, deceitful, and little reliance can be placed upon them. To illustrate these features of their character the first question asked when a chief receives a visitor is, "What present will you take?" for they consider it incumbent upon them to bestow some token of regard, and a neglect to offer it would be indecorous. This custom was always complied with, when any of our officers visited them; and although it was evident they did not wish to part with anything valuable, their choicest possessions were exhibited as if for the choice of the stranger. On the refusal of their offered presents, great joy was always to be observed in their countenance and manner, showing that they rejoiced in an escape from loss, while page 187they had at the same time performed the prescribed rites of hospitality. This risk being over, they were too happy to supply us with cocoa-nuts and fruits. In spite, however, of the apparent liberality with which these were furnished, they do it in expectation of a full return. In pursuance of this hospitality, it is the custom when a stranger passes through a village without showing an intention to stop, to follow him and offer food.

The Samoans are usually very inquisitive, and it was amusing to excite their curiosity. Among other things mentioned for the purpose was, that white men often wore false teeth and wigs. The latter practice, in particular, seemed strange to them, and they called it "thatching the head." A terrestrial globe was also shown to some of them, whereon the position of their islands and their small relative importance was pointed out. This excited great surprise, for until within a few years they had no idea that there was any country except their own.

If the chiefs are liberal in their tenders of presents to their visitors, they on the other hand do not hesitate to ask for whatever they see. They may, in fact, be styled sturdy beggars. One of the most persevering in his mendicancy was no less a person than Vavasa, the proud and overbearing chief of Manono. They usually began with begging from the humblest individual, and ended with the highest; and when they had obtained all they could, would go over the side of the ship ridiculing our folly for giving so much. Old Pea, by way of excusing himself, when charged with being a great beggar, said he did not keep anything he got for himself; that it was the Samoan fashion always to ask for everything he saw. It mattered not if his request was refused, he was as content as if he obtained what he desired, but he said he should have blamed himself if he had not asked.

The beneficial effects of the labours of the missionaries are more evident among the Samoans than at Tahiti. The spread of the gospel has not been opposed by evil habits of the same inveterate character, and the natives of this group have been more easily reclaimed from their vices than those of the Society Islands. The greatest obstacle to the success of the missionaries has arisen from the presence of a few abandoned white men, who attach themselves to the heathen chiefs. Their opposition, although injurious to the missionary cause, yields little benefit to themselves, for of everything they acquire, the chief, under whose protection they are, takes half; and although no opposition is ever made to their departure from the islands, they are not permitted to take anything with them. The vices of these men excite the disgust of the more well-disposed of the natives, who often express their astonishment at their ignorance of sacred subjects, and ask if it be possible that such men can have been brought up in a civilised community. The first attempt to introduce Christianity is related to have occurred in the following manner. Some years before the arrival of the missionaries, a vessel was wrecked upon the island of Upolu, and her cargo seized upon by the natives, many of whom, even to page 188the present day, regret that they did not then understand what riches were placed at their disposal. Their mode of treating the prize was farcical in the extreme; pipes were made out of candlesticks, clothing was thrown away as valueless, and many injured themselves with the fire-arms. The crew were well treated and fed for a long time, although the natives were greatly astonished at the quantities of pigs required for their support, and entertained fears lest they should breed a famine in the land. The captain advised his crew to turn missionaries, and set them the example himself. He met with much success, and succeeded in building several churches, until, upon the arrival of the English missionaries, he was compelled to relinquish his assumed occupation. It is not probable that even the captain was deeply versed in religious knowledge, and very certain that the crew could not have been; but their success appears to have arisen from the great veneration with which white men were at first regarded by the Samoans. They looked upon them as a sort of spirit, whom it was impossible to hurt or kill; and the ships first seen off the coast were considered, as heavenly messengers, prognosticating some dreadful calamity. The bad conduct of their nautical visitors has destroyed this reverence, and foreigners generally no longer meet the kind welcome they formerly received. This observation does not apply to the missionaries, who receive all the honour that is due to their good intention, of which the natives are fully aware.^*

The Wesleyan missionaries, and those of the British Board reached these islands about the same time, or the former were perhaps the first to arrive. The influence of the Wesleyan tenets, and the number of their followers, increased rapidly under the superintendence of the Rev. Mr. Turner. Difficulties, however, arose between the two parties of missionaries, which were finally adjusted between the two boards in London, and the Wesleyans abandoned this field for that of the Feejee Group. This arrangement was amicably made, and I heard of only one individual on either side who showed an uncharitable spirit towards his fellowlabourers of the other party. In spite of the removal of the Wesleyans, there is still a large number of the natives who adhere to the tenets and forms taught them by Mr. Turner, and still retain a strong attachment to him.

The missionaries were from the very first taken under the protection of the most powerful chiefs, and have never received either insult or injury from any of the natives. They have established schools in many of the villages, but have found a difficulty in obtaining native teachers.

The labours of the English missionaries have been much aided by native assistants, who have been both industrious and successful; and among them those of Raratonga have the merit of having led the way. They have acted under the direction of Mr. Williams, and he was loud in praise of their exertions. I witnessed a most interesting meeting of these native missionaries, for the purpose of selecting nine from their number to accompany Mr. Williams to the New Hebrides, which has perhaps left a more deep impression on my mind from the melancholy result of that attempted mission.

Great anxiety was exhibited by the candidates; and I have never seen a more proper state of feeling, or listened to more correct sentiments, than were expressed on this occasion. All appeared devoted to their calling, and some appeared quite eloquent. After the choice was announced, those upon whom it had fallen manifested a cheerful but not unbecoming triumph, while the rejected candidates were evidently grieved and disappointed. The former were now invested with new apparel, which, although no more than a striped cotton shirt,^* gave them an air of consequence among their brethren, which was amusing to us, who could draw comparisons between this simple garment and prouder kinds of canonicals.

Each of the resident missionaries now delivered a long harangue, which was replied to by one of the selected. The subjects of these discourses were, on the one hand, advice in reference to the duties about to be entered upon, and on the other, a recognition of the weight of the responsibility incurred by the successful candidates.

Most, if not all of those selected for the new mission were finelooking men, and they were chosen out of many applicants, for their steady habits and strict moral conduct. The term of their engagement on the new duty was three years, after which they were to return to their wives and children.

The extent and influence of the labours of the missionaries may be best understood by a comparison between the whole population of the islands with the numbers of those who have embraced Christianity and attend the schools.

The entire population of the group is estimated at 56,600, of whom 14,850 have embraced Christianity, and 12,300 attend the schools. These numbers are thus distributed:

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The whole number of foreign missionaries is eleven, of whom one resides in Tutuila, six in Upolu, three in Savaii, and one in Manono.

The number of native teachers is one hundred and thirty-eight, of whom five are in the Eastern Group, thirty-one in Tutuila, fifty in Upolu, thirty-six in Savaii, twelve in Manono, and four in Apolima.

Besides those counted, as having actually embraced Christianity, it is said that two-thirds of the whole population belong to the Christian party.

Of those who attend the schools, about ten thousand read, and this newly introduced habit has of course made a very great change in the habits of a majority of the people, but the number of heathen still left is sufficient to furnish an idea of their original manners and customs, which will in a few years be either entirely lost, or so modified by the spread of the gospel, as to change their character entirely. The rapidity with which this change is going on, rendered it desirable to obtain as much information as possible in relation to the pristine manners of this people.

As respects their ancient religion, we have obtained the following particulars of the heathens. They acknowledge one great god, whom they call Tangaloa-lagi, but pay less worship to him than to their war-gods, Tamafaiga, Sinleo, and Onafanua. The first entices them to war, the second leads them to it, and the third is a female goddess, who encourages them to fight.

Mafuie is their god of earthquakes, who was deemed to possess great power, but has, according to the Samoans, lost much of it. The way in which they say this occurred is as follows: One Talago, who possessed a charm capable of causing the earth to divide, coming to a well-known spot, cried, "Rock, divide! I am Talago; come to work! "The earth separating at his command, he went down to cultivate his taro patch. His son, whose name was Tiitii, became acquainted with the charm, and watching his father, saw him descend, and the earth close after him. At the same spot, Tiitii said, "Rock, divide! I am Talago; come to work! "The rock did not open, but on repeating the words and stamping his foot violently, the earth separated, and he descended. Being a young man, he made a great noise and bustle, notwithstanding the advice page 191of his father to be quiet, lest Mafuie would hear him. The son then asked, "Who is Mafuie, that I should be afraid of him?" Observing smoke at a distance, he inquired the cause of it. Talago said, "It is Mafuie heating his oven." Tiitii determined to go and see, notwith-standing all the persuasions of his father, and met Mafuie, who inquired who he was. "Are you a planter of taro, a builder, or a twister of ropes?" "I am a twister of ropes," said Tiitii; "give me your arm, and I shall show you." So taking the arm of Mafuie, he twisted it off in a moment. Such a practical illustration of his powers soon made Mafuie cry out, "Na fia ola, na fia ola!"—I desire to live, I desire to live! Tiitii then took pity upon him, and let him go. The natives, on feeling an earthquake, exclaim, "Thanks that Mafuie has but one arm! if he had two he would shake the earth to pieces."

The god Salefu supports the earth. They have likewise Mesua, Faana, Tinitini, Lamamau, who are gods of lightning, rain, whirlwinds, &c. These gods are said to reside on an island to the west-ward, from which quarter their bad weather usually comes.

They had, likewise, many inferior gods, who watched over particular districts. These various gods owned certain animals, reptiles, fish, and birds. In some few districts inanimate objects were worshipped, thus: a branch of bamboo, with a bunch of cocoa-nut fibres tied on the top, was worshipped in Manono. They also had carved blocks of wood and stone erected in memory of dead chiefs, which they worshipped.

The account they give of the creation of their island is as follows:—

Tangaloa, their great god, who lives in the sky, sent down the bird Tuli (a kind of snipe), his daughter, to look what was below. She reported to her father that she saw nothing but sea. Tangaloa then rolled a stone from heaven, which became the island of Savaii, and another which produced Upolu, and the same for the others.

This did not suit Tuli, who returned to ask for inhabitants. He gave her orders to plant the wild vines (fuefue), which, after growing, were ordered by him to be pulled up and thrown into heaps, from which worms were produced. Then it was desirable that they should become human. Spirits were accordingly sent to them by Tuli, and the worms became man and woman.

Their notions of a future existence are quite vague. They believe, however, in a happy future state, where everything good is provided. Some say that it is on their own island, others on distant islands, and for the chiefs at the residence of the gods on Pulotu, an island to the westward. They also believe that the spirit goes there immediately after death; that in these places it never rains; that they eat and drink there without labour, and are waited upon by the most beautiful women, who are always young, or, as a chief expressed it to one of our officers, "whose breasts never hang down."

The spirits, according to their belief, often come down to wander about at night around their former dwellings; some spirits are page 192believed to die, while others are immortal; some dwell in subterranean abodes, and are eaten by the gods. Some persons believe that after death they become "aitus," or inferior gods.

They believed in many omens, which were carefully watched. If the black stork, called matuu, flew before them on a war expedition, in the direction they were going, they deemed it betokened success; but if in any other direction, it was an ill omen. If a dim moon, or very bright starlight, or comet were observed, it always indicated the death of a chief; and a rainbow was a sign of war.

The squeaking of rats was an unfortunate omen. Sneezing was also considered unlucky; if any one of a party sneezed on a journey, their further progress was postponed.

I was told that the Samoans have a great dread of being abroad in the dark, and that when obliged to pass about their villages by night, they use flambeaux made of the dried stalks of the cocoa-nut leaf to light them on their way. This fear is partly owing to superstition, which makes them fearful of encountering some spirit or aitu, with which their imaginations people the groves, springs, rocks, trees, &c. They are in the habit of occasionally making a feast for the king's aitu, when a number of pigs are prepared, and a quantity of taro, fruit, &c., is gathered. The portion for the aitu is placed near his supposed dwelling-place, and the dependants and others enjoy themselves on the remainder.

They were formerly in the habit of presenting their first-fruits to the aitus and chiefs. This custom still continues among the heathen, but the Christian party present theirs to the missionaries. The ceremony usually takes place in January or February. In drinking ava, the first cup was always presented to the gods.

There is an account of a large lizard which dwells on the south side of the island, and is worshipped as an aitu. The description given of it makes it two fathoms long, and as large round as a cocoa-nut tree, with huge scales, and a mouth filled with sharp teeth. It is said to dwell in a stream near Safata, into which the natives frequently throw meat. Some of them declare that they have seen him, and that he has dwelt there upwards of fifty years.

It is not remarkable, however, that they should have this tradition; and this circumstance affords an additional proof that they have had frequent intercourse with the Tonga, or Friendly Islands, where a similar tradition is spoken of in Mariner's Tonga Islands.

Among their other superstitions is that of a malignant spirit that resides in the vicinity of Apolima, in the shape of an enormous eel, of from six to ten fathoms long, and large in proportion, which attacks canoes, and drags them down.

Their dances and other amusements are in a great degree abolished, but they are still practised in the heathen villages; and even the Christian women may still be induced to exhibit the former, which they call siva. The mode of performing it differs from that of the Tahitians, but is, like it lascivious; and neither of them would be called dances in our sense of the term. The dance is usually performed by young girls, who stand up before the audience, throwing their arms, legs, feet, and hands in numerous strange attitudes, which are anything but graceful. The others who are present sing amusing words, in two or three parts, while a third or fourth part is kept up in a coarse grunt or guttural sound, in the bass clef. The words are comprised in short sentences, each of which finishes suddenly with a staccato note, and a violent gesture.

The dance of the girls at Upolu consisted entirely of motions of the body, and was so indelicate as to produce disgust. The chant which accompanied it was sung with a high voice, and three or four women were employed in beating time on the mats with short sticks, in which most of the spectators joined with their hands. In all cases they kept time with the greatest accuracy.

The Samoan drum is made of a part of a tree, hollowed out; they have also an instrument formed of a loose slat fitted into a board, on which they beat time with two sticks. Their flute, if it may be so called, is made of bamboo, as are also their pipes, which resemble those of Pan.

The dances of the men are by no means indecorous. Those who perform them vary in number from two to a dozen, and are divided into two parties. These parties alternately advance and retreat, which gives an appearance of animation. Clapping their hands, swinging them to and fro, or clasping them over their heads, they follow each other in a circle, leaping up and down, and turning suddenly round, keeping time to the music. The dances continue a considerable time, and end with a sudden clap of the hands and a simultaneous shout.

The song is usually extemporaneous, relating to some recent occurrence. The following is a translation of one of them:

The Papalangi has come to Samoa,
The Papalangi has come to Vaiusu,
Let us all go down to the spring.
The Papalangi is fond of the Siva.
Where is the pig? Where is the fattened fowl?
The Papalangi cannot join in the Siva.
Kindle up a bright blaze! Where are the Virgins?
I am going to get some cocoa-nuts.
Look at this Samoan, how finely he dances!

page 194

These dances are usually performed in the fale-tele, where strangers are entertained. The inhabitants and their guests occupy different ends of the building, and alternately keep up the dancing and singing. Through the latter all the news is made known, occurrences related, and inquiries made and answered.

Besides these dances, there are various games. One of these, called lupe, is played by two persons, who sit opposite each other. One of them presents his closed fist to his opponent, and then rapidly holds up one, two, three, or all the fingers and the thumb, striking the back of his hand on the mat at the same time. If his opponent fails of instantly holding up a like number of fingers, he loses a point, and ten points finish the game.

Lafo litupa is also played by two persons, who place about fifty beans of the Mimosa scandium before them; then taking up four at a time, they throw them up in the air, and catch them on the back of the hand; the player who catches a hundred soonest is the winner.

Tuae-fua: this is played by five or six persons. It resembles the sport of the Chinese jugglers with iron balls. The first player sometimes takes as many as eight oranges, throwing them successively into the air, and endeavours to keep the whole in motion at once. They are very dextrous at this; if they miss three times the game is lost.

Tui-muri affords the natives much amusement. Any number of persons may play at it. They seat themselves in a circle, and divide into two parties. An orange is suspended from above, about two feet from the ground, and each person is supplied with a small sharppointed stick. The orange is swung round, and as it passes, each one endeavours to pierce it, some with great eagerness, others quite calmly, and others again with a wary coolness, all of which affords much amusement to the by-standers. The party wins who first succeeds in fairly hitting the orange fifty times.

It is played for mats, trinkets, &c., but more generally for a baked pig, which is eaten when the play is over.

Litia: this is a general sport, sometimes whole villages playing against each other; it is in fact an exercise in spear-throwing. Two parties furnish themselves with light sticks of the Hibiscus tiliaceus, about eight or ten feet long and as thick as a finger. The bark is stripped off, which makes them very light. The two parties arrange themselves in a line, and strive to throw these as far as possible; the party which succeeds in throwing fifty the farthest wins the game. The usual distance to which they are thrown is about forty yards, and one would conceive it almost impossible for them to be thrown so far. A grand feast usually terminates the sport, which the losing party pays for.

Lafe is a game confined to the chiefs, who play it for pastime. Four persons sit at the corners of a mat, ten or twelve feet long, in whose centre is placed another of ten inches square; the persons at opposite corners are partners; each party is provided with five circular pieces of cocoa-nut shells, from two inches in diameter to half a cocoa-nut. The first player lays his smallest piece on the page 195little mat, and his opponent tries to knock it off and leave his own in its place. Each in his turn endeavours to knock his opponent's pieces off. The party which first succeeds in knocking his opponent's pieces off one hundred times, wins the game. The pieces of cocoanut are finely polished and carved with a variety of devices.

There is no ceremony at births, or indeed any inconvenience. The mother generally proceeds immediately to the spring, bathes and washes her infant, and at the same time her usual occupations are resumed. The naming of the child frequently takes place some time before its birth, for sex makes no difference in the names, which are given indiscriminately to males and females.

The mothers often suckle their children until they are six years old; and I was told of an instance where a woman gave nourishment to three children of different ages at once, the eldest removing the youngest sometimes by force from the mother's breast.

It is their practice to wash the children frequently in the freshwater streams.

When a native wishes to get a wife, the consent of the chief is first obtained. Then he takes a basket of bread-fruit, and offers it to the girl of his choice. His suit is considered as accepted if she partakes of it. He must then pay her parents a certain price for her, which varies with the station and ability of the parties. A chief's daughter is valued high, viz.: at half a dozen hatchets and as many fathoms of cloth.

Another mode of courtship is to go to the house of the object of attachment or desire, and be entertained. If the family show a friendly feeling towards the young man and eat with him, his addresses are favourably received. The formal offer is made by a large present to the family of the female, which, being aceepted, the match is made, and if refused, the courtship is at an end. The parents expect their children to abide by their decision. The Malo party have been in the habit of taking wives from their conquered enemies when they thought proper. At a marriage ceremony, a great feast is made, particularly if it be a chief's.

A man is at liberty to repudiate his wife and marry again on certain conditions, but the woman cannot leave her husband without his consent.

Adultery was formerly punished with death, and is very seldom committed. Among single women, intercourse with a Samoan before marriage is a reproach, but not with transient foreigners.

It is a common practice for parents to make a present of their children to chiefs or others, who adopt the child as their own, and treat it ever after as such. After it is grown up, one-half of its earnings goes to its adopted parent. This custom gives the chiefs many adopted children of both sexes, who continue to live with them, and are in all respects treated as their own; and spreads their connections far and wide.

In their burials at Upolu, they have but little ceremony. The body is enveloped in many folds of tapa, and deposited, as has already been described at Tutuila, with the ti planted around. No utensils, arms, &c., are deposited with the bodies; for, according to their belief, they have these things provided for them in their page 196Elysium. A feast is made for the attendants, consisting of pigs, taro, bread-fruit, &c.; presents are made by all the relatives to the family of the deceased, and if the family can afford it, a small canoe is procured for a coffin. After the body has lain in the grave some time, they take up the skull and place it in a box in their houses. The reason assigned for this is to prevent their enemies from possessing themselves of it, for it was a custom in their wars to violate the sanctity of the grave. We heard that a few of the bodies of chiefs had been preserved by oil and heat; and the missionaries informed me that they had seen the bodies of those who died thirty or forty years before, preserved in this manner.

Their mode of showing their grief is to burn themselves to blisters (forming indelible marks), with little rolls of twisted tapa, which, on being lighted, soon produce a coal. They also scratch their bodies. The females are said (in token of affliction for deceased friends) to have pricked holes in the corpse, and sucked out the fluids. All these practices may now be said to be passing away, and are almost obliterated.

There is already a very great difference, not only in dress, but in appearance, between those who have adopted Christianity, and those who adhere to heathenism. The latter have a wild look, to which their long hair, tied in a bunch behind, adds not a little; and when going to war, they let it hang down in confusion, which increases their savage appearance.

On the other hand, the Christians crop their hair short—a fashion introduced by the missionaries.

In the heathen villages, the dress of the Samoans is to be seen in its primitive simplicity. It is no more than the titi, which is a short apron and girdle of the leaves of the ti (Dracæna), tied around the loins and falling down to the thighs. The women besmear page 197themselves with cocoa-nut oil mixed with turmeric, which gives them a shining yellow tint, that is considered as a beauty; on each breast is a spot of reddish brown, of a singular shape, and of various sizes, from that of a dollar to that of a dessert-plate. They do not show the least sign of feminine bashfulness, while those of the Christian villages cover their bosoms, and exhibit as much modesty as those of any country.

During the last ten years, the dress of the natives has undergone much change; the titi has been increased in length, and extends all round the body; it has a neat and pretty effect when first put on, but requires renewing often, as the leaves wilt in a few days; this garment is well adapted to the climate, being cool, and the necessity of frequent change insures cleanliness.

The Wesleyan missionaries from the Friendly Islands have introduced the siapo, of Tonga, which has now come into common use. It is soft, pliable, and not glazed, and is principally used as a wrapper, after the manner of the pareu of the Tahiti islanders. A piece of cotton cloth is usually worn by the chiefs as a siapo.

The maro is worn when engaged in active exercise, or in war, as being less cumbrous. The women often wear a beautifully white shaggy mat (ie sina), hanging from the neck to the feet. It is woven by hand from the fine threads of the hibiscus; they also sometimes wear wrappers of the siapo form, and the tiputa, a kind of poncho, of the same material, after the old fashion of the Tahitians, which is more becoming than the loose gown introduced into that island by the missionaries.

There is another kind of mat, of very fine texture, worn on great occasions, and used in their dances as a kind of cloak. It is ornamented with a border of red feathers. This is the most valuable property they possess, for they cost much pains to the manufacturers, and are often a year or eighteen months in their hands.

In the way of ornaments they use but few. The men usually wear a shell (the ovula) suspended around the neck by a string.

Tattooing, if not in reality, at least in appearance, may be said to form a part of dress. It is performed by persons who make it a regular business. The age at which it takes place is from fourteen to eighteen, and is usually considered the initiation to manhood. The usual colouring matter is obtained from the kernel of the eandle-nut. Tattooing is here called ta-ta-tau, and is tastefully drawn. The natives are very fond of it. It is expensive to the family, for the operator always receives a high price for his labour, consisting of the finest mats, siapo, and other property, as agreed upon before the operation is begun. The instrument used is made of bone, sharp, like the teeth of a comb, and requires but a slight blow to enter the skin. The part tattooed on the males is from the loins to the thighs, but the women have only a few lines on their hands and bodies.

Their hair formerly occupied much of their attention, as it does still that of the heathen, who, as has been seen, wear it long, and have it nicely combed and twisted up in a knot on the top of the head. The females frequently used to wear a wreath of flowers, page 198which gave them a picturesque and pleasant appearance; but the use of flowers as ornaments has been interdicted by the missionary teachers.

The articles of which their dress is composed are manufactured by the females, who are exceedingly industrious. The common cloth, or tapa, is made of the inner bark of the paper mulberry, which is cultivated for the purpose in nurseries. It is cut when the stem is about one and a half inch in diameter; the inner bark is separated and washed in water, which deprives it of some of its gum; it is then beaten until the adhesion of the fibres forms many of the strips into a single mass. The mallet used for this purpose is about two inches square, and about fourteen inches long, with a handle at one end; two of its faces are grooved, and the other two smooth; the bark is laid on a board, and struck with the mallet in a direction at right angles with its fibres; the grooved sides are used to spread out the fibres, and the smooth ones to knit them together. The groves also give a thready appearance to the surface.

This method differs from that practised at Tahiti, where the bark is beaten with a smaller mallet upon a spring-board; and the tapa made here is of inferior quality. The tapa is often printed with colours in patterns. This is performed in a mode similar to that practised in Europe before the introduction of copper rollers. Instead of engraved blocks, they form tablets, about as thick as binder's boards, of pieces of large cocoa-nut leaves, by sewing them together. One side of the tablet is kept smooth and even, and upon this cocoa-nut fibres are sewed, so as to form the required pattern, which is of course raised upon the surface of the tablet. These tablets are wet with a piece of cloth well soaked in the dye, after which the tapa, which for this purpose is well bleached and beautifully white, is laid upon them and pressed into close contact. The dye is made from herbs and roots, and is of various colours.

The women also manufacture the mats. Some of these have been mentioned in describing the dress of the natives: the finest kinds are made of the inner bark of the paper-mulberry; those of coarser texture of the leaves of the pandanus, which are nicely scraped and bleached. The mats are all made by hand, and by interlacing the fibres; one of the finest description will require the industrious labour of a year.

Among the mats are some of as fine a texture and as soft as if made of cotton. These are rarely or never manufactured at present, and are solely possessed by the chiefs, in whose family they are handed down from father to son, as heir-looms. They are considered as their choicest treasures, and are so much coveted that wars have been made to obtain possession of them.

There are several distinct trades among the men besides that of tattooing; among the most esteemed is that of canoe-building, in which there is no little skill displayed.

The usual fishing-canoe is made of a single tree, with a small outrigger to balance it. They have no large double canoes, such as are seen in Tonga and Feejee.

The largest canoes are from thirty to sixty feet long, and capable page 199of carrying from ten to twelve persons. They are formed of several pieces of plank, fastened together with sennit. These pieces are of no regular size or shape. On the edge of each plank is a ledge or projection, which serves to attach the sennit, and to connect and bind it closely to the adjoining one. It is surprising to see the labour bestowed on uniting so many small pieces, where large and good planks might be obtained. Before the pieces are joined, the gum from the bark of the bread-fruit tree is used to cement them close and prevent leakage. These canoes retain their form much more truly than one would have supposed, and I saw few whose original model had been impaired by service. On the outside, the pieces are so closely fitted as frequently to require close examination before the seams can be detected. This perfection of workmanship is astonishing to those who see the tools with which it is executed. They are now made of no more than a piece of iron tied to a stick, and used as an adze. This, with a gimlet, is all they have, and before they obtained these iron tools, they used adzes made of hard stone or fish-bones. These canoes are built with a deck forward and aft. They are long and narrow, and their shape is elegant. They are paddled by natives, who sit two abreast, and are guided by a steersman. The seat of honour is on the forward deck, in the centre of which is a row of pegs, to which the large white ovula shell is attached by way of ornament. The natives find no difficulty in occupying this place, as they manage to sit in almost any position with ease to themselves; but a stranger who attempts it, and is for any time confined to one of these places of honour, will repent of the distinction he enjoys before many minutes are over. One of our gentlemen was treated with this distinction, and will long recollect the words of the song they sing.

"Lelei tusilava le tau mua,
Leango tusilava le lau muri."
"Good above all is the part before,
Bad above all is the part behind."

The uneasiness, from his account, does not only proceed from the small place left to sit upon, but also from the constant apprehension of being precipitated into the sea. This faa Samoa, or Samoan fashion, is anything but agreeable.

Having both a prow and stern, these canoes cannot be manœuvred without tacking; consequently the outrigger, that constitutes their safety, is, in using their sail, alternately to leeward and windward, and does not, when to leeward, add much to the stability of the eanoe. They carry less sail than the canoes of the other natives of Polynesia; and to guard against the danger of upsetting, the natives rig a sprit or boom (suati), projecting from the opposite side to that on which the outrigger is fitted. This boom is secured with guys to the top of the mast. When the wind blows fresh some of the men go out upon it, and thus balance or counteract the force of the wind. Those on the other side of the canoe are kept ready to go out on the outrigger when that becomes necessary. The sail is made of a mat page 200of a triangular shape, with its apex below; some of these are ten feet high.

None of the canoes we saw at the Samoan Group are calculated for long voyages. Those used in their intercourse with the Tonga Islands are the large double Feejee canoe, of which I shall speak when I treat of those islanders.

In their trips from town to town, they are generally on parties of pleasure, termed malanga, and are frequently to be met with singing their boat-songs.

These songs have but little variety, are destitute of melody, and have small pretensions to harmony. They consist, for the most part, of two short strains, repeated alternately, the first by a single individual, and the second by several. Their voices are loud, and have generally a tenor character; the strains are mostly in the minor scale, and sung in the key of two or three flats.

The work in which the Samoans show their greatest ingenuity, is in the construction of their native houses, and particularly of their fale-teles or council-houses, some of which are of large dimensions. They are built of the wood of the bread-fruit tree, and there are two modes in use: their own, and that borrowed from the Friendly Islands. The true Samoan house is slightly oval; those of the Friendly Islands are oblong. They may be said to consist of three parts, the centre and two ends; the former is erected first. For this purpose the three centre-posts, which are twenty-five or thirty feet high, are usually first raised; on these rests the ridge-pole. A staging or scaffolding is now erected, nearly in the form of the roof, which serves for ladders and to support the roof temporarily. The roof is commenced at the ridge-pole, and is worked downwards. The crossbeams are lashed in at different heights, connecting the centre portions of the roof together, and are fastened to the upright centreposts. The rafters are made of short pieces, placed at equal distances apart, and form the curve that is required to construct the roof. Between the largest rafters are smaller ones, about one foot apart. Across the rafters are placed and fastened many small rods, about an inch in diameter. The whole is neatly thatched with the sugarcane or pandanus leaves, and the rafters are terminated by a wallpiece, made of short pieces of wood, fastened together and to the rafters, so as to form the ellipse required for the roof. The end portions, of similar small pieces, are made to correspond to the required curvature of the roof and the ellipse of the wall-plate. Posts are now placed in the ground, about three feet apart, to receive the wall-piece, which is fastened to their tops. There is no fastening used but sennit, made of cocoa-nut fibres. The rafters are generally made of the hibiscus, which is light and strong. The eaves extend about a foot beyond the posts. The smaller houses generally have permanent sides; the larger ones are open all around, but mats are hung up as curtains by the occupants, and any part may be used as a door.

After the whole is finished, the interior has the appearance of an extensive framework, from the number of cross-beams, which are used as depositories for their property, tapas, mats, &c.; and in page 201some cases the favourite canoe of the chiefs is placed on them. After a full inspection of one of these fabrics, one cannot but view these natives not only as industrious, but as possessing great skill and ingenuity. The thatching lasts four or five years. There is no floor to the house, but the ground is covered with stones about the size of a small egg. There is usually a paved platform on the outside, about three feet wide. In some cases this is raised a foot, and serves to keep the house dry, as the stones allow a free passage to water. On the pavement are laid coarse mats, and the finer ones are spread above, covering about half the area.

These fine mats are rolled up until required. Many baskets hang here and there, with some cocoa-nut shells to contain water, and the ava-bowl. Mats are suspended about as screens. At night, each sleeper is usually supplied with a musquito-curtain, called tai-namu, which, forming a kind of tent, by being passed over a ridge-pole or rope, and falling on the ground, answers all the purposes required.^*

On one, and sometimes on both sides of the centre post of the houses, is a small circular hearth, enclosed by stones of larger size; this is the place for burning the dried leaves of the cocoa-nut, which serve them for light at night. Although these do not give out much smoke, yet, as they burn for a long time, the house gradually becomes filled with soot, for there is no outlet above for its escape.^†

As they always use the flambeau to light them on their return from their feasts, it produces a singular and pretty effect to see an assembly breaking up, and the different parties winding through the groves with torches, throwing the whole into bold relief. A rude lamp is also used, made of a cocoa-nut shell, with a little oil in it, and a piece of vine-stalk for a wick, and likewise the nut of the Aleurites triloba, or candle-nut, several of which are strung on a thin stick.

Many whitewashed houses are now to be seen, for the natives have been taught the use of lime by the missionaries, and are beginning to use it in their dwellings. All the missionaries' houses have plastered walls, and board floors, and are very comfortable. There is a great quantity of fine timber on these islands, for building purposes. The timber of the bread-fruit tree and hibiscus are alone made use of by the natives. The missionaries have their planks or boards sawed by hand, and generally by foreign carpenters.

They have much variety in their cooking, and some of their dishes are exceedingly rich and agreeable to the taste. They practise several modes of cooking the taro-tops; one, by tying them up with cocoa-nut pulp and baking them, in which state they resemble spinach cooked with cream, but are sweeter. Another dish is called faiai, made of the scraped and strained cocoa-nut pulp boiled down to the consistency of custard. It is eaten both hot and cold.

The habits of the Samoans are regular. They rise with the sun, and immediately take a meal. They then bathe and oil themselves, and go to their occupations for the day. These consist in part of the cultivation of taro and yams; building houses and canoes. Many fish; others catch birds, for which purpose they use nets affixed to long poles. They generally find enough to employ the mornings, in getting their daily supply. After this is done, they lounge about, or play at their various games, eat about one o'clock, and again at night, retiring to rest about nine o'clock. The men do all the hard work, even to cookery.

The women are held in much consideration among this people, are treated with great attention, and not suffered to do anything but what rightfully belongs to them. They take care of the house, and of their children, prepare the food for cooking, do all the in-door work, and manufacture the mats and tapa.

They are cleanly in their habits, and bathe daily; after which they anoint themselves with oil and turmeric. This custom, I have no doubt, tends to preserve the health by preventing the excessive perspiration which the heat of the climate naturally brings on. It is, however, at times offensive, for the oil is apt to become rancid.

The Samoans are of a social disposition, more so, indeed, than the other natives of the Polynesian Islands, and they are fond of travelling. The reasons they have for taking these journeys are various; thus, when there is a scarcity of food in one part, or a failure of the crops, they are in the habit of making a faatamilo, or circuit, around a portion of these islands, so that by the time they return (which is at the expiration of three months), their own taro has grown, and the bread-fruit season come around. They are now in their turn prepared to afford the same hospitality and accommodation to others, The old people are usually left at the village to take care of it, whilst the younger portions are gone on one of these malangas or journeys. During these expeditions, a sort of trade is frequently carried on. The different portions of the inhabitants are celebrated for a particular staple. Some excel in making mats; in building canoes; the districts in which the sea-ports are, obtain a variety of articles from ships, which are subsequently distributed over the whole group.

It may readily be supposed that there are many circumstances which make this mode of communication inconvenient, particularly page 203when the travelling party is a large one, in which case it absolutely breeds a famine in its progress.

I have before stated that every village has its fale-tele, which is the property of the chief. In this their fonos or councils are held, and it is also the place where strangers are received. The mode of receiving visitors is attended with much ceremony. A party enters the village without inquiring where or how they are to be entertained, and take up their quarters in the fale-tele. In a short time the chief and principal personages collect and visit the strangers, telling them in a set speech the pleasure they enjoy at their arrival, and their delight to entertain them. This is mostly said in what they term tala-gota, the speech of the lips, and much complimentary language ensues. The Samoan language abounds in phrases adapted to this use, and worthy of a refined people.

After this interchange of compliments, the young women assemble to treat the strangers to ava. This is prepared after the usual mode, by chewing the Piper mythisticum. During this time the young men are employed collecting and cooking food. This is all done with great dispatch. The pigs are killed; the taro collected; the oven heated; and baskets made to hold the viands. In the feast they are well assured of sharing, and therefore have a strong stimulus to exertion.

The strangers on receiving the food, always return part of it to the entertainers. Thus all the village is occupied with the entertainment, and a scene of frolicking ensues until the strangers see fit to take their departure.

Among the heathen, dancing during the evening always follows this feast; but the Christian villages have abolished all dancing.

These visits are not always paid or received in a spirit of hospitality. The chief of a powerful district takes this mode to exact tribute from his less powerful neighbours, and they are on such occasions extremely overbearing and insolent to their entertainers.

For crimes, they have many forms of punishment, among which are: Expulsion from the village in which the offender resides; exposure of the naked body to the sun; flogging; cutting off the ears and nose; confiscation of property; and the compulsory eating of noxious herbs.

When a murder has been committed, the friends of the person slain unite to avenge his death; and the punishment does not fall upon the guilty party alone, but on his friends and relatives, who with their property are made the subjects of retaliation. If any delay in seeking redress in this manner occurs, it is received as an intimation that the injured party, whether the family, the friends, the village, or whole district to which the murdered person belonged, are willing to accept an equivalent for the wrong they have sustained. The friends of the murderer then collect what they hope may be sufficient to avert retribution, and a negotiation is entered into to fix the amount of compensation. When this is agreed upon, it is offered to the nearest relative of the deceased, and the parties who present it perform at the same time an act of submission, by prostrating themselves before him. This closes the affair.

page 204

For some crimes nothing but the death of the offender could atone. Among these was adultery; and when the wives of chiefs eloped with men of another district, it generally produced a war. This was one of the causes of the wars waged by Malietoa.

There existed, however, means by which the code was rendered less bloody, in places of refuge for offenders, such as. the tombs of chiefs, which were held sacred and inviolate.

Wars were frequent among the Samoans before the introduction of the Gospel, and scarcely a month passed without being avenged, and with blows. The last and perhaps last bloody war that has ever occurred on these islands, was about the time of the first visit of Mr. Williams, the missionary, in 1830, when the inhabitants of one of the finest districts, that of Aana, in the western part of Upolu, were almost exterminated. This war continued for eight months, and only those were saved who escaped to the olos, or inaccessible places of refuge, or were protected by the Malo, the ruling or conquering party.

When the missionaries arrived, in 1836, and for upwards of a year afterwards, Aana was without a single inhabitant; but through their influence upon the Malo party, it was agreed at a large fono to restore the exiles to their lands. Aana is again (in 1839) the finest part of the island, and will be in a few years quite a garden.

These wars, like those of all savage people, were attended with great cruelty, and neither old nor young of either sex were spared. It is related that after the last battle of Aana, a fire was kept burning for several days, into which hundreds of women and children were cast.

Their wars were seldom carried on in open fight, but stratagem, was resorted to, and all enemies that could be attacked were killed, whether in their houses, or when accidentally met with at their work in the taro patches.

Their arms consisted of clubs and spears, made of the iron wood, (Gasuarina,) bows and arrows, and of late years, the musket. The man who could ward off a blow, and at the same, time inflict a wound on his adversary, was considered the best warrior. Each village had its separate commander, and there was no general, their operations being from time to time decided in council. Their spears were pointed with the sting of the ray-fish, which, on breaking off in the body, caused certain death.

The olos, above mentioned, were usually on the top of some high rock, or almost inaccessible mountain, where a small force could protect itself from a larger one. One of these olos, or strongholds, of the people of Aana, during the late war, was on a high perpendicular ridge, which forms the western boundary of the bay of Faleletai, and it was the scene of many bloody contest. The Manono people, coming by night, would land at the foot of the hill, and attempt its ascent, while those on the top would roll and hurl down stones, generally overcoming them with ease, and driving the invaders back with great slaughter. The latter, however, took a fearful and truly savage revenge for their various defeats. Lying in wait until the women came down to fish on the reef, they set page 205upon them, and massacred them all. The burning of houses, the destruction of the bread-fruit, cocoa-nut trees, taro-patches, and yam-grounds, &c., were the ordinary features of these conflicts.

Upon the occurrence of a cause of war, the parties sent to their respective friends in the different towns to solicit their aid. Such solicitations usually resulted in the whole district, and sometimes the whole of the island, being engaged in a civil war.

On going to war, they were accustomed to cast their hair loose, or to tie it up in various forms; and to add to the fierceness of their appearance, they wore large bunches of false hair, which also increased their apparent height.

In making peace, the conquered party was required to make submission, by bringing loads of stones, fire-wood, and green boughs, and to bow down very abjectly in the presence of the chief. They were also required to pay a large amount of tapa, mats, and other property.

The government of the Samoans is more refined in principle than could well be expected. The rule of hereditary chiefs is acknowledged, and the distinction of the several classes well defined. Great respect is paid to the chiefs, and particularly to the tupu, or highest class. To this belong Malietoa, Pea of Manono, &c. The second class consists of the near relatives of the first, and of others who have large possessions; the third, of the petty chiefs of villages; next come the tula-fales, who are a well-defined class between the chiefs (alii) and common people. These tula-fales are proprietors of the soil, and householders; they possess considerable influence, and act as advisers of the chiefs, and the executors of their orders. Like the chiefs, they derive their rank from descent. There is no distinct name for the common people as a class, but the chiefs in speaking of them always apply some opprobrious epithet. The son of a lowborn woman by a chief, ranks as a chief, although he has no authority; and the son of a noble woman by a man of mean birth, may be either a chief or a commoner.

The lands are allotted and distinguished by known boundaries. The natural heir of the former owner succeeds, and is the feudal chief or leader in war, but all his dependents are free to cultivate them. Lands may be sold, which is done at public meetings, and the bargain is made binding by sticking their staves into the ground, or digging a portion of it up.

The whole power lies in the high chiefs of the Malo or conquering party. They assembly in fono, and determine the general laws and rules of action. At the head of this is Malietoa, who is now considered the head chief of Atua, and is supposed will shortly acquire that of Tui of Aana. Each of these districts formerly had a separate chief, bearing the same title of Tui, but in their wars with Manono, nearly all the descendants of these princes were killed off. To obtain this title requires the consent of the chiefs of Manono, and part of Savaii, which belongs to the ruling party.

The fono may levy what contribution it pleases, particularly on those they have conquered. The present Malo, or government, is designated Malo-to-toa-the gentle government.

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Although there is no supreme authority acknowledged in any one individual, yet there are instances of chiefs of districts assuming and maintaining it. The late Tamafago, of whom some account has already been given, was one of these. He assumed the attributes not only of a king, but of a god, and after conquering a rival district on Savaii, he took, as has been stated, the name, O 1e Tupu o Savaii-the King of Savaii. After he was killed, Malietoa succeeded to the same title; but it now confers no power, and is considered merely as complimentary.

Each district and town has its own government. An elderly chief generally presides, or is considered as the head of the village, town, or district. In these primary fonos or meetings, the affairs are generally discussed by the alii (chiefs) and tula-fales (land-holders), and what they determine on is usually followed. The great fono, or general assembly, is seldom called, except on matters affecting the whole of the island or district. The subject is calmly debated, and most thoroughly discussed; the final decision, however, is not by vote, but is adopted after consultation, and is governed by the opinions of the most influential chiefs. It thus appears that these assemblies have little influence upon the course the chiefs may have determined to pursue, and serve chiefly to insure the united action of the district in carrying the designs of the chiefs into effect. The tulu-fano or decree, promulgated by the council, is to be obeyed, and those who fail are punished by the Malo, being plundered by them of their lands, &c.

In the descent of the office of chief, the rule of primogeniture is not strictly followed, but the authority and title always remain in the same family.

It is the custom at the fonos to compliment the head chiefs, and invoke blessings on them in prayers, that their lives may be prolonged and prosperous. I was informed that these assemblies were conducted with much ceremony, but I was much disappointed in the one I witnessed. The forms of proceeding may, however, be different, when strangers are not present. The fonos generally begin at an early hour in the morning, and last until late in the afternoon. One of the most pleasing of the ceremonies is that in which the chiefs are supplied with food during the time the meeting is in session. After the food is prepared, and dished in fresh banana leaves, the wives and daughters of the chiefs attire themselves in their best dresses. They then enter the fale-tele, and approach their fathers, husbands, and brothers, &c., before whom they stop, awaiting their instructions as to whom they shall hand the viands. When they have obeyed their directions, they retire. The whole duty is conducted with the utmost decorum, and while it is going on, no conversation is permitted except in a low voice. I learned from the missionaries who had attended some of their meetings, that the manner of speaking was good, and the self-possession of the orators remarkable. The speakers generally have persons near them who act as a sort of prompters, and remind them of the subjects it is desirable they should speak of. The whole proceedings are conducted with the utmost quiet, and no disturbance is allowed.