The Religious Element in Indian Art.

Both in the villages and in the towns, the religious life of the Hindus, as organised by the code of Manu, finds expression. Every thought, word, deed, of the Hindus belongs to the world of the unseen as well as of the seen, and nothing shows this more strikingly than the traditionary arts of India. The materials of which different articles are fashioned, their weight, and the colours in which they are painted, are fixed by religious rule. See The Industrial Arts of India, South Kensington Handbook, which should be read by those who desire to understand Indian Art.

General Arrangement of the Exhibits.

Each of the Arts mentioned in the following list is represented by the workers in the Palace Yard.

The Art Ware Exhibits are:—

Metal Work, of Gold and Silver, but specially of Brass and Copper.

Textile, or Woven Fabrics, which take the form of calicoes muslins, silks, brocades, gold and silver lace, carpets. Note, except in the carpets, the lack of woollen goods.

Jewellery.—Filigrain and enamelled.

Lacquered and Inlaid Work.

Carving of wood, ivory, and stone, and Clay Modelling.

Metal Work.

Damascening.—This process takes its name from Damascus, where the early goldsmiths carried it to high perfection. The design is cut out in grooves on the surface to be damascened, and these grooves, when filled up with gold or silver, produce Koft work; when filled up with other metals, Bidri work—from Bidar, the home of the process.

Swami Work is metal work in relief, either beaten out from the surfacc, or affixed to it, by soldering or wedging, or screwing on.

The Hindus use brass and bell-metal for domestic purposes, and copper for religious purposes.

Textile or Woven Fabrics.

India was probably the first of all countries which perfected weaving. Not until last century did the cotton manufacture obtain a footing in England. In 1641 "Manchester Cottons" were made of wool in imitation of Indian cottons. Contrast an English "power loom" with an Indian loom. The Greeks, who entered India with Alexander the Great, B.C. 327, found the natives wearing garments made of "tree wool," i.e. cotton, and robes worked in gold, and flowered garments of the finest muslin.

The charm of Indian Textile fabrics lies in (1) The beauty of the dyes used. (2) The harmonious arrangement of the colours; all violent contrasts are avoided. (3) The simplicity and treatment of the decoration or pattern.

Notice, that the most common pattern is the knop, or bud, and the flower. This pattern is never seen twice in the same form.

The guiding principle is alternation, and this is seen in the native garden and heard in the native music.

A Native copying a flower will peg it down flat on the ground, laying out its leaves, and buds, and flowers symmetrically on either side of the central stem; if these arc not opposite to each other in the pattern plant, he will make them appear so in his drawing by adding others.

The weaver puts the proper colours into his fabric either from his own knowledge or a pattern, but no native can do his best from a pattern. If he is told simply, "Now I want you to make something in this style, in your own way, but the best thing you ever did, and you may take your own time about it, and I will pay you whatever you ask," he will succeed. Art in Europe is spoiled by haggling and hurry.

The loveliest little mosque in Bombay was built without a plan, the workmen day by day tracing roughly on the ground the designs by which they worked.

Some Calicoes are woven with coloured threads, others as the chintzes and bandanas are printed.

English chemical dyes are fast spoiling the Indian dyers' work. The Maharajah of Kashmir does his best to keep English dyes out of his country. Notice the cloths of unbleached cotton, with their exquisite borders in red, blue, and green silk.

Muslins.—The once celebrated Dacca muslins are now almost a thing of the past. Formerly they were manufactured in pieces 15 yards long and one broad, with a weight of not quite two ounces, and a value of £40 the piece. Now, the finest would weigh nearly four ounces, with a value of £10 the piece.

Silks.—It is not lawful for Mahommedans to wear pure silk, hence, fabrics which have a woof of cotton and a warp of silk, or a back of cotton and an outside surface of silk. Fabrics, in which cotton is mixed with silk, are termed mashru, i.e. lawful.

Brocades.—Gold and silver are worked into the decoration of all the more costly loom-made goods. The native word kincob is applied to the highly ornamental brocades of the Bengal province. "The King's daughter is all glorious within, her clothing is of wrought gold."—Psalm xlv.

Very poetical names are given to the brocades, such as "Moon and Stars," "Ripples of Silver," "Pigeon's Eye," "Peacock's Neck."

Gold and Silver Lace.—An immense manufacture all over India, particularly in the Royal cities. The gold and silver wire used is produced by wire-drawers, who can obtain nearly half a mile of silver-gilt wire from a rupee's worth of silver.

Embroidery is done on silk, muslin, wool, and leather.

Carpets.—Few people realise, when buying Oriental carpets, that they are buying works of art, and not manufacturers' piece goods, produced at competition prices. The attempt to set a trade value of "so much per square yard" upon such artworks as Indian tapestries and carpets, is as absurd as it would be to purchase pictures by the same standard. European demand for Indian carpets has led to their deterioration.

The carpets of cotton, with stripes and with squares, and diamonds introduced, are from the oldest Indian designs. The woollen pile carpets came in with the Mussulman invaders.

Jewellery.

The European Jeweller bestows the least amount of work on the greatest amount of metal. Weight is his standard of excellence.—The Indian Jeweller gives to the least possible weight of metal the highest artistic value. The great variety of articles in the Punjab Courts furnish the best illustration of the universal use of silver ornaments by all ages, and all classes, in India.

The Bengal and Madras Courts give an excellent illustration of Filigrain work.

The quantity and quality of jewellery worn by women is a sure and safe criterion of the prosperity of the people. It is their Savings Bank.

Pottery.

Notice the form, how simple and true to Nature, how suited for its special use.

Household Pottery (except the hookahs and surahis) is unglazed, and the demand is immense, since the Hindus have a religious prejudice against using an earthen vessel twice. Clay Idols are also thrown away every day after being worshipped.

"The Potter is an hereditary officer in every Indian village. India has undergone more religious and political revolutions than any other country in the world, yet there at his daily work has sat the potter, steadfast and unchangeable for 3,000 years, Macedonian, Mongol, Maratha, Portuguese, page 15 Dutch, English, French, and Dane, of no more account to him than the broken pot heads lying round his wheel."

The Beautiful Enamelled Pottery seen in the Punjab Court is a sumptuary, not a religious art.

Lacquered and Inlaid Wood.

Lacquered Work.—Hardly a Court without specimens. The higher class is applied to furniture and house decorations, but the lacquering of inferior objects, as walking-sticks, mats, bags, is carried on everywhere, even by the wandering jungle tribes.

Inlaid Work.—See the "Bombay Boxes." Inlaying is performed with brass and tin ware, sandal wood, ivory, staghorn, mother-of-pearl. The Taj has inlaid work of precious stones.

Carving and Modelling.

Carving.—In every Court evidence of Indian skill in carving, cither in wood, as the screens testify, or stone, as the idols and soapstone ornamental dishes show, or in ivory, as seen in the Courts of Bombay and Madras.

The Clay Figures in the Jeypore Court, and the Madras Court, show native skill in modelling.

But with all this skill in carving and modelling, will not find a single exhibit which shows native power for artistic figure sculpture.

Furniture and Household Decoration.

In India, the great art in Furniture is to do without it. "Up country you may pass through a whole palace, and the only furniture in it will be rugs and pillows, and, of course, the cooking pots and pans, and the vessels for eating and drinking, and the wardrobes and caskets, and images of the gods. But you are entranced by the perfect proportions of the rooms, the polish of the ivory-white walls, the gay frescoes round the dado, the beautiful shapes of the niches in the walls and the windows, the richness and vigour of the carved work of the doors, and projecting beams and pillars of the verandah."

Notice how frequently use is made of the wood of the Shisliam or blackwood Tree.

A few special particulars respecting some of the Principal Courts.

To present a catalogue of the Exhibits of each Court would be tempting those who can visit the Courts but once, to waste their time and spoil their pleasure.

The particulars now given either refer to specialities or to exhibits illustrative of principles stated on pages 11 to 14.

If in walking through the Courts the eye rests on the exhibits mentioned, well and good; if not, do not worry to find them.

Rajputana Courts, on each side as the Art Ware Courts are entered—Notice the Kotah Screen inlaid with ivory—The Bhartpur Screen of Jalli work, resembling frozen lace—The Bikanir "gesso" Screen, the patterns of which have been produced by applying layer after layer of liquid clay with a brush. Jeypore furnishes the chief supply of idols in Brahminical India.

Kotah Dyed Cloths.—These cloths are first dyed, then small portions of the cloth, about the size of a threepenny-piece, are tied up with cotton thread, the cloth is again dipped, but the colour does not touch the portions tied up; the process is repeated, and intricate patterns are then produced, in three colours. This knot-dyeing process is called "bandhna," and gave its name to the old bandanna handkerchief.

Central India—Collections not extensive nor of special interest.

Bombay.—Bahavangar portion of Screen, the richest and most beautiful in the Courts. Good specimens of "Kincob," a gold and silver brocade made at Surat, used for covering state carriages, saddlecloths, marriage dresses of bridegrooms. A beautiful panel of hammered copper, and window of perforated brass—Baroda pigeonhouse—Baroda doorway with iron bosses—Collection of turbans requiring 40 to 75 yards for a single turban.

The people of Baroda and Gujarat consider it a sin to kill animals, but to feed them an act of charity.

Bosses on doorways were originally placed on doors to prevent damage from the knock given by the head of a visitor's elephant. That which was designed for protection is retained as an ornament.

Bengal Court.—Jewellery—Silver filigrain work—Bidri work—Ivory carving of Murshidabad in Case 43—Gold Embroidery—Chikan, or embroidered muslin.

The silver filigrain work of Cuttach is generally done by boys, whose sensitive fingers and keener sight enable them to put the fine silver threads together with rapidity.

Nepal.—Nepal is an independent State, extending 700 miles along the southern face of the Himalayas. The small court gives specimens of native arts and industries—Carving—Brass Work—Musical Instruments.

North-West Provinces.—Inlaid work on pillars of screen similar to that on the Taj—Moradabad ware in case 62—Agra soapstone carvings in case 61—Bidri ware—Brass work illustrated by models of temples and mosques—Muslins—Embroidery.

Moradabad Ware.—In this ware, the tin is soldered on the brass and then cut through to the brass, which makes the yellow outline to the pattern.

The Taj is a tomb built by Shah Jehan for himself and his favourite wife, whose pet name was Taj. In a beautiful garden, on a double platform, the first of red sandstone, 20 feet high and 1000 feet broad; the second, of marble, 15 feet high, and 300 feet square, stands the Taj, a colossal casket, whose base is 186 feet, whose height is 200 feet, and whose cost was above 2,000,000 sterling. Bishop Heber remarked of the Taj, "The Saracens built like Titans and finished like jewellers."

The Punjab Court.—No figure carving, since the inhabitants are principally Mahommedans—Jewellery—Koft work—Lac turnery—Pottery—Woollen fabrics, for there are severe winters of the Hill Country—Delhi embroidery—Dress of a Delhi dancing girl—Carpets of state—Amritsar door in beaten copper.

Lac Turnery.—The lac surface is obtained by pressing a stick of lac (sealing wax) on an object revolving in a lathe; the heat developed by the friction melts the wax. Sometimes a layer of red lac, then green, then black, is laid on. The black is scratched through for the green leaves; the green and black for a red flower, and for a white line, all are cut through to the wood.

The Golden Temple of Amritsar.—In the courts of the Exhibition leading into the Court of Ceylon there is a large model of this temple. The temple rises out of a large tank, and is reached by a broad roadway of white marble, with golden balustrades and lamps. The lower half of the temple walls are of carved white marble; the upper half of the walls and the roof, of copper plates, arc richly gilded, and seem a mass of gold. The doors are solid silver; the windows are golden.

Kashmir Court.— Papier-mâché—Silver gilt wire—Shawls—Chintzes.

The Screen is made of Deodar, the time of making was four months, by eight workmen, whose average wages were sixpence a day, and whose tools were the native chisel and adze.

Shawls.—The value of Kashmir shawls has greatly decreased. The Shawl, No 31, now marked 300 rupees, would once have cost 800 to 1000 rupees.

Central Provinces.—Screen made by native carpenters of Nagpur—Brocades and gold wrought cotton tissues—Tussar silk goods (see page 22)—Carving in which these provinces hold their own.

Houses with carved teak fronts of great beauty are found even in the villages. The necklets are largely worn by Brahmin youths.

Assam.—Screen of bamboo and cane—Barpeta bracelets and necklaces—Jorhat earrings enamelled in gold—Model of homestead—Silk fabrics made of eria and muga silk (see page 23).

The Barpeta bracelets and necklaces consist of alternate beads of coral and gold, about the size of marbles. The lockets and earrings are enamelled in gold.

Burmah Court.—The screen of this court shows the visitor that he has passed from India proper into a country where the religion, the manners, the customs, and consequently the arts of the people differ from any already examined.

Jewellery with peculiar ruddy colour—Lacquered ware—Basket work—Cotton cloths—Tamein or female dress.

Jewellery.—Much of the gold is dyed with tamarind juice, which may be regarded as the "Hall mark" of Burmese jewellery, since the Burmese say that no other metal but gold would assume the peculiar ruddy colour.

The Burmese Lacquered Ware is of two kinds: I. Basket work, a very important trade; 2. Wood work.

Cloths.—Some Burmese cloths, owing to their intricate patterns, require many shuttles, and are known as "fifty-shuttle," "eighty-shuttle," "hundredshuttle" putsoes.

Madras Court.—Old native jewellery, jewellery of the aboriginal tribes, every metal from iron to gold—The peasant jewellery—Travancore filigrain work and ivory carving—Musical instruments.

Native Jewellery.—Two hundred articles, including gold ornaments for the ear, the nose, and the back of the hair. The gold marriage emblem, a representation of the foot of Krishna. Gold beads, gold rings for thumb and index finger, gold necklet, silver armlets, wristlets, necklets, finger-rings and toe-rings.

Hyderabad.—Lacquer ware—Muslins—Gold and silver cloth for beautiful state umbrellas and elephants' cloths—Two beautiful carpets.

Bidar, the home of Bidri ware. No dowry is considered complete among the better class of Mahommedans unless a complete set of Bidri ware, from bed legs to a spittoon, is included.

Mysore and Coorg.—Swami work—Deities carved in soapstone—Inlaid ebony furniture.

Swami Work. See page 12. The maker of the Prince of Wales' exquisite gold dishes exhibits fine specimens of Swami work.

Hindu Deities.—This collection indicates the "motif" of almost all the well-known Mysore work.

Mysore Goldsmiths are renowned for delicacy and ingenuity of work.