I.—History.

In 1847 the Educational Institute of Scotland was

Educational Institute of Scotland, 1847.

formed "for the purpose of promoting sound learning, "and of advancing the interests of education in Scotland. "From the first the Institute regarded education both as a science and an art. The third resolution adopted at the preliminary meeting is—" That in further prosecuting the object of the Association it seems expe "dient that a knowledge of the theory and practice "of education be more widely disseminated among the "profession by means of public lectures, the institution of libraries, and such other means as may afterwards seem advisable." A series of lectures was given in Edinburgh in the winter of 1847-48, of which Dr. Schmitz, formerly Rector of the Edinburgh High School, says,"The lectures were numerously attended by teach "ers in Edinburgh and its immediate vicinity, and the "public took considerable interest in them." And Dr page 8 Gloag tells us these lectures" were not made for purposes of a local nature merely, but were chiefly "intended for the benefit of the younger members of "the profession, many of whom were at the time "attending College in Edinburgh, and had been "invited to avail, and did avail, themselves of the "opportunity thus presented to them." This statement is confirmed by Mr. Middleton, afterwards well known as Dr. Middleton, H.M. Inspector of Schools. On the days preceding the annual meeting in September special lectures, usually three in number, were delivered, chiefly on the scientific aspects of Education. Among the lecturers were Mr. Gunn, High School, Edinburgh, Professor Pillans, and Dr. Cumming and Dr. Bryce of Glasgow. The last-named gentleman drew attention to the necessity of basing both the science and the art of education upon the laws of the

college of [unclear: llege of] eceptors.

human mind. Meantime the College of Preceptors, which had been established rather earlier in England, with like objects, was pursuing a course similar to that of the Institute, and sent delegates to the Edinburgh meetings. Both bodies soon found that the systematic treatment of education as a science was a work too great to be satisfactorily dealt with by casual lecturers however eminent, and both agreed that it was too vitally important to be neglected. Accordingly in 1851 a Committee of the Institute drew up a scheme, which was approved of, for "Lectures on the Theory and "Practice of Education." Want of funds prevented the scheme from being carried out, though from that time to the present the Institute has sought in various ways to realise its views, and to press them for acceptance upon the Scottish Universities.

[unclear: M]r. Brunton,

In his Presidential Address in 1858 Dr. Brunton says—" We must have our Professors of Paideutics; "and we shall lend a helping hand to maintain, extend, "and improve the education of Scotland, and preserve "the pre-eminence that this ancient kingdom has held page 9 "in education for by past centuries. We must have "Professors. . . . The times are favourable for the "institution of such chairs. We have a University "Commission, who have the power, if we could induce "to have the will, and impel them to action, towards "the accomplishment of our purpose. I have some "hopes that the petition to these noblemen and gentle "men will obtain a favourable answer. They will "found chairs; and can they found any which will "have a more beneficial effect on the education of the "country, or will tend more to elevate our profession, "which is the foundation of all the Faculties?"

In accordance with these views a memorial¹ was

Universities Commissioners, 1859.

presented to the Commissioners setting forth in detail the necessity and the advantages of the course advocated, but in vain. A quarter of a century has been lost, another Commission is now announced. Let us hope for a favourable issue. The memorial of 1859 is so applicable to the situation that no excuse is required for inserting it in the Appendix, and asking for it a careful perusal. Nothing better could even now be framed. An attempt had been made in 1857, but without success, to induce the Trustees of the Ferguson

Ferguson Bequest.

Bequest to aid in establishing Chairs of Education. Another effort was made in 1859 to induce these Trustees to consider the propriety of aiding the foundation of a chair in the University of Glasgow, which seemed to have a superior claim on the Trust. Aid was declined "on the ground that the Universities "being now popularized, and under the control of "public opinion to a much greater extent than formerly, "any change or enlargement which the times may "demand will be best left to the operation of this "opinion arising from a felt want on the part of the "public." Probably few will venture to affirm that any change in the character of the Universities, such as was expected by the Ferguson Trustees, has yet

¹ See Appendix A.

page 10 taken place. The General Council of a Scottish University is practically a powerless body. Corporate institutions do not readily respond to public opinion. Hence outsiders "do good in occasionally passing an "electric shock through the sluggish University Corporation."¹ In a recent pamphlet the Secretary to the Trustees says—"My views were embodied in a special report submitted to the Trustees on the 18th April, 1859. In "that report I stated that, had the available funds been "larger, I should have suggested the institution of a "new Chair or of a Lectureship, the latter an acknowledged want at the time."² It would be gratifying to know that the proposed chair was one of Education.

Whitehall Certificates.

Meantime the character of our teachers was rapidly changing, owing to the development of the Whitehall system. A high class certificate, with a corresponding money value, limited the aims of the elementary teacher in his professional study, and such teachers speedily displaced University men in the common schools, which now confined themselves to mere elementary work. In our secondary schools University men were still found, but their sphere of employment being contracted, their numbers decreased, and their experience became narrowed, until they lacked that system in their work which the Code had forced upon their certificated brethren in primary schools. Hitherto in Scotland the profession had been one body, now it formed two quite distinct classes. Of these one wanted experience and method, while the other was imperfectly educated, and had the lowest aims and the narrowest views. Protests were unheeded. A system, faulty to begin with, was developed in a still more faulty way. Mr. Lowe had persuaded the English squires and manufacturers that the education of the masses should

¹ Professor Bain in Educational News of 24th Feb., 1883.

² See the interesting account of "The Ferguson Scholarships," just published by the Secretary, Mr. M. S. Tait, p. 4.

page 11 be limited in amount and mechanical in kind, and that it could be regulated in the same way as the workhouse, or the cotton market.

But there were not wanting among us, even in these dark years, true educationalists, who kept the lamp alive, and by whose light we have been guided so far out of the Whitehall dungeon. In July 1862 there appeared in the Museum a remarkable paper by "An Edinburgh Graduate," on "Training Schools in Scot-land," which attracted no little attention at the time. It set forth the anomalies of the system, its peculiar unsuitableness for Scotland, especially in its ignoring the Universities, the relation between which and teachers had formerly been so intimate and so beneficial. From this paper, even after the lapse of twenty years, it is still pertinent to quote the following passage—"The special or professional training [of teachers] "might be provided by adding to the Faculties of Arts "a Chair of the Principles and Practice of Teaching, "and connecting it with a model or practising school "outside the University walls. During two full sessions the student would give his attention to classics, "mathematics, and the English language and literature (his familiarity with the ordinary subjects of "instruction in an elementary school being secured by "the bursary entrance-examination); devoting the "summer session of each year to attendance on the "Chair of Education, and a study of organization and "methods in the model school."

The scheme thus formulated attracted the attention

Prof. Pillans and Mr. Lowe.

of Professor Pillans, who, in his old age, was still seeking to realise the dream of his manhood. And so in the last year of his life, a patriarch in education, fired by professional zeal, offering £5000 for the cause which he had so much at heart, he went to London, and endeavoured to persuade the authorities to aid him in founding a Chair of Education in the University page 12 of Edinburgh. But what a change! Instead of the Ministers who had in 1834 received him with "kindliness," he was met by Mr. Robert Lowe, who contemptuously declared that there was "no science of education." Thus the project failed; and just as under Mr. Lowe's direction public education was reduced to dull and mechanical routine, so did his cold rebuff delay for a decade the smallest recognition of education as entitled to professional rank. Valuable years were lost in desperate struggles to show the hollowness of Mr. Lowe's scheme, and the necessity for higher aims in education, and the highest training in the educator. In the Dick Bequest Report of 1865 occurs the following statement so opposed to the views then current at Whitehall:—

In direct opposition, also, to Mr. Lowe's declaration that there was no science of education, we have the testimony of the highest educational authorities, as in the following passage from an address on Teaching as

¹ Pp. 15-17.

page 13 a Profession, delivered by Dr. (now Professor) Donaldson at Stirling in April 1867:—"There is a science of education, a science not

Professor Donaldson.

"merely in its rudiments, but worked out with considerable fulness; and those who have asserted the "contrary seem to me to betray their ignorance of "what has been done in this field, and their readiness "to pronounce an opinion before they have investigated a subject."¹ He points out that the Arts course at the Scottish and English Universities leaves graduates quite incapable as teachers. He says, "I "taught Greek in the Edinburgh University, and I "taught Latin in the Stirling High School, and during "the first three years of this my teaching career, I "was groping in the dark. I had plenty of impulse, "and gave that to my pupils in abundance. But look "ing back on these years, I now know that I needlessly put difficulties in the way of my pupils, that I "was ignorant of the nature of their minds, and made "mistakes in consequence. It was not until I had "made a thorough study of psychology, as it can and "ought to be applied to the minds of boys, that I saw "clearly the right methods to pursue. . . . The "teachers in the great schools of England are all highly "educated men, and yet the report of the Commissioners states that their teaching, taking it as a "whole, has been a miserable failure. Why? Because "most of them do not know how to teach. They "employ methods that violate every law of psychology. "They persist in practices which psychology pro "nounces injurious to the human mind. And you "will find, in the answers of some of them, opinions in "regard to teaching, which it is perfectly marvellous "that a sane man could entertain."

In 1866 Messrs. Greig and Harvey, the assistant

Assistant Commissioners.

Commissioners on Education, point out that the Normal Schools are all situated in University cities in Scotland,

¹ Museum, June 1867.

page 14 and go on to advocate complete University (including professional) training for some of our teachers, and combined Normal and University training for the others. And in the Third Report of that Commission, 1868, there is shown in an appendix a plan for combining University with Normal School training.

Dr. Fitch.

In 1868 Mr. Fitch, H.M. Inspector of Schools, in reporting on middle-class education in Yorkshire, says:—"Nothing is more striking than the very general "disregard, on the part of schoolmasters, of the art and "science of teaching. Few have had any special preparation for it. Professional training for middle-class "schoolmasters does not exist in this country. It is "certain that many of them would gladly obtain it if it "were accessible. But at present it is not to be had. "... In every existing liberal profession, except "that of a teacher, it is assumed that special preparatio "is needed, and for it provision, more or less perfect, is "already made. The great medical schools attach "themselves to hospitals, and in this way vast endowments and sums contributed for benevolent purposes "have become available, in the most efficient manner, "in the professional education of surgeons and physicians. "Schools of law exist at the Universities; and in the "Inns of Court we possess ancient and wealthy corporations, with ample means for improving the character "of legal education. . . . But the scholastic "profession has no organisation, and is possessed of no "advantages analogous to any of these. . . . One "of the Universities should institute a Professorship of "Pedagogy, and should formally recognise in its teach "ing, and by special examinations, the importance of "the science of education . . . . One may hope "that a department will some day be created in which "an English University may offer honours in the principles and history of education."¹ Reference must

¹ Report to Schools' Inquiry Commission on Schools in the West Riding of Yorkshire.

page 15 also be made to an able paper entitled "A Plea on Behalf of Professors of Education," which appeared in the Museum for March, 1869, and which will amply repay perusal. It declares that there "is absolutely" no provision for any one obtaining systematic instruc "tion" in the science of education, and states "various "reasons why that would be best given in connection "with the Universities."

In the presidential addresses to the Institute constant reference is made to education as a subject worthy of University recognition. Thus in 1870 Mr. M'Turk, F.R.G.S., after deploring the loss of the "golden "opportunity when the late Professor Pillans proposed "to endow a Professorship of Paideutics," goes on to advocate courses of lectures on education delivered in succession by eminent educationalists in each of our Universities. Acting teachers and students could, he thinks, attend them, and arrangements could be made "that University education and Normal teaching go "hand in hand, as the only real security for a race of "cultivated men, at once accomplished scholars and "skilful teachers—men of the traditional stamina and "acquirements of the world-famed Scottish teacher, "with all the superadded practical knowledge and skill "which the best modern training can impart."

Dr. Abbott, of the City of London Schools, said, "Personally, I feel that by some kind of professional training I should have been saved from many mistakes." Dr. Butler, of Harrow, expressed a similar opinion, and this conference and subsequent ones urged the Universities to remedy the defect.

A Committee of the Institute was appointed to report on the best steps to be taken to secure" the establishment of a Chair of Education in the Scottish Universities, with its complementary training machinery."

Meantime Mr. Jolly, who was most enthusiastic in the cause, advocated it with great ability; and his writings did much to remove misconceptions, and to give definite shape to the scheme. By articles in The Fortnightly Review and The Schoolmaster, by pamphlets, and by notices in his annual reports, he secured for it attention in the highest quarters. All interested in the question are advised to study two most able contributions by Mr. Jolly on "The Professional Training of Teachers," for which see The Fortnightly Review of page 17 September, 1874, and the Transactions of the Social Science Association, which met at Glasgow in the same year. Similar views were urged by Professor Hodgson at the Norwich meeting of the Social Science Congress, and by Mrs. Gray and others at the Belfast meeting of the British Association. The press declared in favour

The Press.

of the movement both in Edinburgh and Glasgow, particularly the Scotsman, Courant, Daily Review, and Glasgow Herald, the last-named then under the direction of Dr. (now Professor) Jack, a high authority in all educational affairs. Everywhere the educational atmosphere was rife with the cry of "Chair! Chair!" and a response was soon forthcoming.

The Bell Trustees, after formal promises of aid from the Government, found that certain Scotch members of Parliament, who ought to have known better, had come under the evil influences of the system propagated by Mr. Lowe, had unfortunately imbibed his spirit, and become afflicted with the craze for mechanical results. These were not confined to one political party, or to one religious sect, but combining to resist any grant they rendered futile the attempt to secure provision for Edinburgh and St. Andrews, and indirectly they caused the two other Universities to be left unprovided for. Though thus abandoned to their own resources, the Trustees persevered with their scheme, which resulted in the happy selection in 1876, as first occupants of the chairs, of two well-known educationalists, Professors Laurie and Meiklejohn.

Professor Hodgson.

" Quite apart from the Training Colleges there is "ample room for professorships of the theory, practice, "and history of education. How many of our secondary teachers pass through no Training College, and "is acquaintance with the principles of education less "needful for them than for primary teachers? . . . . . . "The first step upward is practically to proclaim that" professional culture, as distinguished from knowledge "of the subjects to be taught, is needful for every "teacher of every kind, and of every grade." He quotes Sir J. Kay-Shuttleworth, who says," A well "arranged system of training would at once stimulate "professional esprit de corps, supply a basis of organisation; and induce a large number of men to look page 19 "upon teaching as the work of their lives." Professor Hodgson thus concludes—"The professorship "is the essential nucleus of that which must ere "long be instituted a Faculty of Education, equal in "dignity and completeness to that either of medicine "or of law."

During 1876 and 1877 the late Universities' Commissioners

Universities Commission, 1876-8.

collected an immense mass of evidence,' examining, among other points, into the propriety of instituting new chairs. There was a remarkable agreement among most authorities on the question of Chairs of Education. It was maintained that for our higher schools the M.A. with honours should be page 20 demanded, for our better parish and village schools the M.A. pass might suffice, and that for inferior posts it was desirable to revive the old degree of B.A., or to institute a Literateship in Arts, to meet the case of many who could not take the full curriculum, and whose University qualification might nevertheless be recognized. But it was again and again urged upon the Commission that some attempt should be made to secure the power of communicating in school the knowledge which the teacher possessed, and to point out the application of those principles according to which the mind is developed, habit and character formed, and culture acquired. Instruction in Method, and in the History of education, as illustrative of both theory and practice, was also advocated. In their Report the Commissioners say—" As Chairs of Education are a "recent and somewhat experimental institution, we "refrain from making any special recommendation in "regard to them."¹ As the evidence is of the greatest value, and not now very accessible, the opinions of some Professors and distinguished teachers are subjoined.

Professor Black of Aberdeen, in recommending the revival of the degree of B.A., or as the Commissioners prefer a certificate in Arts, says—

Prof. Black.

" It would serve along with suitable instruction in "methods of teaching, as a basis for a teacher's "diploma . . . The new degree would be granted upon "five subjects, on the same standard as the M.A. "degree, but covering a less area. I may mention "that this was the scheme practically agreed to by the "four Universities, two or three years ago, as the basis "of a teacher's diploma, and that it was, I venture to "think, within an ace—if I may use such an expression—of being accepted by the Education Department "in London, had not ecclesiastical jealousies somewhat "interfered. It is evidently a felt want all over the

¹ Report, Vol. I., p. 63.

page 21 "country, and the feeling has found frequent and "varied expression." He thinks it "very desirable" that "we should have a Chair of Education [at Aberdeen]. In the meantime, if a teacher's curriculum "and diploma be instituted, as I trust it will, in the "form of a B.A. degree, or otherwise, we might make "other arrangements for giving teachers a knowledge "of method, but no plan of doing so would be so satisfactory as a Professorship of Education."¹

These, be it remembered, are the words of one who had for years, as an Inspector of Schools, unequalled opportunities of observing Aberdeen graduates at work, in elementary and superior primary schools, in the Dick Bequest counties, so peculiarly the home of graduate teachers.

Professor Struthers declares that "a Chair for the

Professor Struthers.

"Theory and Practice of Education, which Edinburgh "and St. Andrews already have, seems essential if the "Scottish Universities are to attend to the education of "teachers."³ The Rev. Professor (now Principal) Pirie is, however, of a different opinion. He objects to

Prof. Pirie.

and would abolish Chairs of Education, Rhetoric, English Literature, &c., because "there cannot be "much taught by them," and Moral Philosophy he

¹ Report Univ. Com., Evidence, 6366 and 6388.

² Ibid., 5301, 5337.

³ Ibid., 7834.

page 22 specially attacks as "very useless, and indeed may be" mischievous. "He objects also to the office of Principal in a University, for the Principal" has nothing "in the world to do . . . and must be apt to make a "fuss about trifles." The originality of the evidence of this witness afforded much amusement to the Commissioners, and gave one of them the impression that the Doctor held that "Plato and Cato had a sense of moral" obligation, but they ought not to have had it."¹ We may then assume that any pertinent evidence from Aberdeen is in favour of the recognition of Education in the University curriculum.

Sir Alex. Grant.

Sir Alexander Grant, Principal of the University of Edinburgh, gives a scheme of options in the higher studies for the degree of M.A., by which he manages to recognize for graduation every Chair in that University except the Chair of Education, regarding which he merely states that diplomas should be given to teachers.³ This exclusion of the Education Chair from the options led to a protest from the General Council, which, at a well-attended meeting in October 1879,

¹ Report Univ. Com., Evidence, 2659-2673.

² Ibid., 3588.

³ Ibid., 150.

page 23 carried a motion by a large majority to include education among the subjects qualifying for the degree of M.A. in the event of any changes being made.

Stirling Congress.

At the Stirling Congress of 1881, the present writer said, "A university should be many-sided, and if it has "room for medical men as such, for engineers as such, "for lawyers as such, would it be degraded, or would "it depart from the function of a university, if it were "to provide for teachers as such ? Until this end be "realised, the words of Dr. Playfair will still be true: "' It is strange that the very art, which has for its pro-

¹ Report Univ. Com., Evidence, 9116.

² Ibid., 5493.

page 25 "' fessed object to lay the foundations of every profession, has for itself no recognition as a profession in "' this country.' In former times, as I have shown, it "was not so. Dr. Playfair, however, regards the time "as near when ' the Universities will doubtless revert "'to their ancient practice of giving special degrees for" 'teaching.' Educational faculties cannot be difficult "to organize in Universities which contain educationalists of the stamp of Professors Geddes and Bain, "Meiklejohn and Crombie, Laurie and Calderwood, "Ramsay and Jack."

At the Aberdeen Congress in January last the Rector

Aberdeen' Congress, Mr. Moir.

of the Aberdeen Grammar School expressed a similar opinion—"One change, I am sure, you will all agree is "desirable, and that is that there should be in our Arts' "Faculties a sub-faculty of education and a teacher's "degree. With a system of options, and the institution "of Chairs of Paideutics in all our Universities, and "with our Normal Schools affiliated to the Universities, I can imagine a state of matters when our future "teachers, both elementary and secondary, both male "and female, could all get a University training. Then, "corresponding to clinical education in medicine, there "would require to be certain practising schools open to "students intending to be teachers. . . . Teachers page 26 "have a perfect right to assert their claims to be enrolled amongst the professions, and I am sure the "great mass of the Scotch people would hail with pleasure their recognition in that capacity. We are the "coming power in the country. The Church and the "Press must give us a place beside them as the educators of the people, as the producers of good citizens, "and the preventers of crime and immorality." At the same Congress an Aberdeen Professor declared that a "teacher's degree would be an admirable "thing." He had been in favour of a Professor of Education in each of our Universities. Such a position should, he thought, be highly esteemed, for the "highest of all functions was to be a teacher of teachers."

The history of the movement for the recognition of education as a University subject has thus been traced to the present time. It is not a movement of recent date. In Scotland it has been advocated for more than fifty years. The profession has ever sought to realise the ideas of Professors Pillans and Ferguson. They and most of the early leaders have now passed away, and have left for this generation the sacred duty of completing a work which the labours of half a century have done much to advance, and for the accomplishment of which the present seems a favourable opportunity.