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The Pamphlet Collection of Sir Robert Stout: Volume 6

Address to the Mathematical and Physical Section of the British Association. — Brighton, August 14th, 1872

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Address to the Mathematical and Physical Section of the British Association.

Brighton, August 14th, 1872.

My predecessors in this Chair have addressed you on many subjects of high interest in Mathematical and Physical Science: I do not contemplate passing in review the recent discoveries in Astronomy or Physical Science, but intend to confine myself, in the main, to Astronomical Photography; and in selecting this branch of science as the subject of this introductory discourse, I think that I shall have your approval, not only because I have given special attention to that subject, but also because it is about to be applied to the determination of a fundamental element of our system, the solar parallax, by observations of the transit of Venus in 1874, and probably also in 1882.

Nothing is so lastingly injurious to the progress of science as false data; for they endure often through many centuries. False views, even if supported by some amount of evidence, do comparatively little harm; for every one takes a salutary interest in proving their falseness; and when this is done the path to error is closed, and the road to truth is opened at the same moment.

It will be conceded that Photography, when applied to scientific observation, undoubtedly preserves facts. But the question has sometimes been raised, are photographic records absolutely trustworthy representations of the phenomena recorded? If not, what is the extent of truth, and where are the inlets for errors and mistakes? Not only has photographic observation gained a wide range of applications in astronomy, but in every other branch of physical science its help is daily more and more taken advantage of; and although, in speaking of this art, I shall confine myself to astronomy, the observations which I propose to make may be suggestive with reference to other branches of physics.

As an instance of the application of this art to optical physics I may in this place call attention to the very successful delineation of the solar spectrum by Mr. Lewis M. Rutherfurd, of the United States. In Mr. Rutherfurd's spectrum, obtained by the camera, many portions and lines are shown (in the ultra-violet for instance) which, while imperceptible to the retina of the-eye, impress themselves on the sensitive film. As a fact, lines which are single in Angstrom's and Kirchhoff's maps, have been recorded by photography as well-marked double lines. I will now review the application of the art to astronomy.

Stellar photography was for some time applied at Harvard-College Observatory, U.S., to double stars, for the purpose of determining by micrometric measurement their relative angle of position and distance. The zero of the angle of position was found by moving the telescope in right ascension after an impression had been taken, and taking a second one on the same plate; this process gave two sets of photographic images on the same plate; and the right line passing through the page 2 series gave the direction of the daily motion of the heavens. The probable error of a single measurement of the photographic distance of the images was found to be ±0″.12, or somewhat smaller than that of a direct measurement with the common filar micrometer. The late Professor Bond, who applied photography to stellar astronomy, confining himself to stars brighter than the seventh magnitude, discussed the results in various numbers of the 'Astronomische Nachrichten.' No astronomer more unbiased could have been selected to decide on the comparative value of the photographic and direct observational method. His discussion shows that the probable error of the centre of an image was ±0″ 051, and that of the distance of two such centres was ±0″−′072. Adopting the estimate of Struve, ±0"'217, as the probable error of a single measurement of a double star of this class with a filar micrometer, Professor Bond shows that the measurement of the photographic images would have a relative value three times as great. He derived the further important conclusion, that deficiency of light can be more than compensated for by proportionate increase in the time of exposure. A star of the ninth magnitude would give a photographic image, after an exposure of ten minutes, with the Cambridge equatorial.

In the reproduction of stars by photography, recently undertaken by Mr. Rutherfurd, the objects to be secured being so minute, special precautions were found to be necessary in depicting them upon the sensitive film, so that their impressions might be distinguishable from accidental specks in the collodion plate. To prevent any such chance of mistake, Mr. Rutherfurd secures a double image of each luminary, the motion of the telescope being stopped for a short time (half a minute) between a first and second exposure of the plate; so that each star is represented by two close specks, so to speak, upon the negative, and is clearly to be distinguished by this contrivance from any accidental speck in the film. A map of the heavens is thus secured, very clear though delicate in its nature, but yet one upon which implicit reliance can be placed for the purposes of measurement. Professor Peirce aptly says, "This addition to astronomical research is unsurpassed by any step of the kind that has ever been taken. The photographs afford just as good an opportunity for new and original investigation of the relative position of near stars as could be derived from the stars themselves as seen through the most powerful telescopes. They are indisputable facts, unbiased by personal defects of observation, and which convey to all future times the actual place? of the stars when the photographs were taken."

Mr. Asaph Hall, who shared with Professor Bond the work of measuring the photographic images and of reducing the measurements, has very recently subjected the photographic method to a critical comparison, with a view to deciding on its value when applied to the observation of the transit of Venus. He appears, as regards its application to stellar observations, to underestimate the photographic method in consequence of want of rapidity; but he admits that in the case of a solar eclipse, or of the transit of a planet over the sun's disk, it has very great advantages, especially over eye-observations of contacts, inner and outer, of the planet and the sun's limb, and that the errors to which it is subject are worthy of the most thorough investigation. The observation of a contact is uncertain on account of irradiation, and is also only momentary; so that, if missed from any cause, the record of the event is irretrievably lost at a particular station, and long and costly preparations rendered futile. On the other hand, when the sky is clear, a photographic image can be obtained in an instant and repeated through-out the progress of the transit, and even if all the contacts be lost, equally valuable results will be secured, if the data collected on the photographic plates can be correctly reduced, as will be proved hereafter to be undoubtedly possible. That the transit of Venus will be recorded by photography may now be announced as certain, as preparations are energetically progressing in England, France, Russia, and America for obtaining photographic records. There is also a probability of Portugal taking part in these observations; for it is contemplated by Senor Capello to transport the Lisbon photoheliograph to Macao. There are at present five photoheliographs in process of construction for the observing parties to be sent out by the British Government, under the direction of the Astronomer Royal, Sir George B. Airy. The Russian Government will supply their own parties with three similar instru- page 3 ments; and I am also having constructed one of my own for this purpose and for future solar observations. All these instruments, made precisely alike, will embody the results of our experience gained during the last ten years in photoheliography at the Kew Observatory whilst belonging to this Association. One only of them, namely the photoheliograph which has been at work for some years at Wilna, is of a somewhat older pattern; but how great an advance even this instrument is on the original at Kew is proved by the delightful definition of the most delicate markings of the sun in the pictures which have reached this country from Wilna.

Hitherto sun-pictures have been taken on wet collodion; but a question has been raised whether it would not be better to use dry plates. On this point M. Struve informs us that, in two places, at Wilna, under the direction of Colonel Smysloff, and at Bothkamp, in Holstein, under Dr. Vogel, they have perfectly succeeded in taking instantaneous photographs of the sun with dry plates.

As far, however, as my own experience has gone, I still believe that the wet collodion is preferable to the dry for such observations.

Now, with reference to contact observations, which it must be remembered are by no means indispensable as far as photography is concerned, it may be conceded that there will attach to the record of the internal contact a certain amount of uncertainty, although not so great as that which affects optical observation. The photograph which first shows contact may possibly not be that taken when the thread of light between Venus and the sun's disk is first completed, but the first taken after it has become thick enough to be shown on the plate; and this thickness is somewhat dependent on incidental circumstances—for example, a haziness of the sky, which, although almost imperceptible, yet diminishes the actinic brilliancy of the sun, and might render the photographic image of the small extent of the limb which is concerned in the phenomenon too faint for future measurements. On the other hand, having a series of photographs of the sun with Venus on the disk, we can, with a suitable micrometer, such as I contrived for measuring the eclipse-pictures of 1866 and which since then has been in continuous use in measuring the Kew solar photograms*, fix the position of the centre of each body with great precision. But the reduction of the measured distances of the centre to their values in are is not without difficulty. Irradiation may possibly enlarge the diameter of the sun in photographic pictures, and it may diminish the size of the disk of a planet crossing the sun, as is the case with eye-observations; but if the images depicted are nearly of the same size at all stations whose results are to be included in any set of discussions, then the ratio of the diameters of Venus and the sun will be the same in all the plates, and it will be safe to assume that they are equally affected by irradiation. The advantage which, therefore, will result by employing no less than eight instruments precisely alike, as are those now being made by Sir. Dallmeyer on the improved Kew model, is quite obvious. If other forms of instruments, such as will hereafter be alluded to, be used, it will be essential that a sufficient number of them be employed in selected localities to give also connected sets for discussion.

To give some idea of the relative apparent magnitudes of the sun and Venus, I may mention that at the epoch of the transit of 1874 the solar disk would, in the Kew photoheliograph, have a semidiameter of 1965-8 thousandths of an inch, or nearly two inches; Venus a semidiameter of 63-33 of these units; and the parallax of Venus referred to the sun would be represented by 47-85 such units, the maximum possible displacement being 95-7 units or nearly 1/10 of an inch.

When the photographs have been secured, the micrometric measurements which will have to be performed consist in the determination of the sun's semidiameter in units of the scale of the micrometer, the angle of position of the successive situations of the planet on the disk, as shown on the series of photographs, and finally the distances of the centres of the planet and the sun. These data determine absolutely the chord along which the transit has been observed to within 0″−1; and an error of 1″ in the measurement would give an error of only 0″−185 in the deduced

* In this micromotor, which is capable of giving radial distances, angles of position, and also rectangular coordinates, the accuracy of linear measurements does not depend on the doubtful results given by a long rim of a micromotor screw.

page 4 solar parallax. Moreover the epoch of each photographic record is determinable with the utmost accuracy, the time of the exposure being from 1/50 to 1/100 of a second or even less.

Now, although the truth of the foregoing remarks will be fully admitted, it will yet be well to point out in this place the inherent or the supposed defects of the photographic method. These defects may principally be comprised under the head of Possibility of Distortion; and the importance of an investigation into this source of error will appear at once obvious in all cases where the position of a definite point with reference to a system of coordinates has to be determined from measured photographs, especially in such a refined application of it as that which it will have in the determination of the solar parallax.

The distortion of a photographic image, if such exist, may be either extrinsic or intrinsic—that is, either optical or mechanical. The instrumental apparatus for producing the image may produce optical irregularities before it reaches the sensitive plate; or an image optically correct may by irregular contraction of the sensitive film in the process of drying, and other incidents of the process, present on the plate a faulty delineation.*

In general, two ways present themselves for clearing observations from errors. Either methods may be devised for determining the numerical amount of every error from any source, or by special contrivances the source of error may be contracted to such insignificant limits that its effect in a special case is too minute to exert any influence upon the result. Both these roads have been followed in the inquiry into the optical distortion of photographic images.

As regards the first, let it be supposed that, as in the Kew instrument, the primary image is magnified by a system of lenses before reaching the sensitive plate. The defects inherent to the optical arrangement will clearly affect every photographic picture produced by the same instrument; and hence a method suggests itself for determining absolutely the numerical effect of distortion at every point of the field. Let us assume that the same object, which may be a rod of unalterable and known length, be photographed in precisely the same manner in which celestial events are photographically recorded, the object being at a considerable distance; it may successively be brought into all possible positions in the field of the photoheliograph, and the length of the image on the photograph may be measured afterwards at leisure by means of a micrometer. These lengths will change relatively wherever distortion takes place; but by laying down these varying lengths we shall obtain an optical distortion-map of the particular instrument; and tables may be constructed giving in absolute numbers the corrections to be applied to measurements of positions on account of the influence of optical distortion. In this way the optical distortion of the combined object-glass and secondary magnifier is ascertained. The chief source of distortion if such exist, will be in the secondary magnifier; and in order to ascertain its amount a reticule of lines drawn at equal distances upon glass may (as has been done recently by Paschen and Dallmeyer) be placed in the common focus of the object-glass and secondary magnifier. The required data are then immediately given by the measurement of the resulting pictures of the parallelograms on the reticule. Mr. Dallmeyer has ascertained in this manner that no sensible distortion exists in the secondary magnifier constructed by him. The truth of the principle being granted, it was applied to a preliminary series for finding the distortion which affects the Kew instrument, which is not nearly so perfect as those more recently constructed; and the results were so far satisfactory that, instead of a single rod, a proper scale, fifteen feet in length, representing a series of rectangles distributed over half the radius of the field, has been erected; and the process of absolutely determining the optical distortion of the Kew photo-heliograph is now in active progress, and will be used for the new instruments to be employed in observing the transits of Venus.

* It has been proposed, in order to obviate any possible alteration of the sensitive surface, to use the Daguerreotype instead of the collodion process. The former, however, is so little practised, and, moreover, is so much more troublesome, that it docs not seem to be advisable to adopt it, especially as the subsequent measurements would present greater difficulties than occur with collodion pictures.

page 5

The second method of dealing with optical distortion aims at total exclusion of this source of error. It has been proposed by American astronomers, who intend taking part in the coming observations of the transit of Venus, to exclude the secondary magnifier, and, in order to obtain an image of sufficient diameter, to employ a lens of considerable focal length, say 40 feet, which would give an image as large as with the Kew photoheliograph—namely, 4 inches in diameter. As it would be inconvenient to mount such an instrument equatorially, it is proposed to fix it in the meridian in a horizontal position, and reflect the sun in the direction of its axis by means of a flat mirror moved by a heliostat. There cannot be any doubt about the fact that the image so produced would be nearly free from optical distortion, if the interposed mirror did not introduce a new source of error. The difficulty of producing a plane mirror is well known; and there is a difficulty in maintaining its true figure in all positions; there is also a liability of the disturbance of the rays by currents of heated air between the mirror and object-glass: moreover, with such an instrument position-wires could not be defined with sharpness on the photographs. On the whole, greater reliance may be placed on a method which admits the existence of a distorting influence, but has at the same time means of checking and controlling it numerically.

Great attention has been paid by me at various times to those effects of distortion which might arise from the process of drying. The results to which the experiments lead seem to prove that there is no appreciable contraction except in thickness, and that the collodion film does not become distorted, provided the rims of the glass plates have been well ground: this point is a fundamental one. But in such observations as that of the transit of Venus, no refinement of correction ought to be neglected; hence fresh experiments will be undertaken to set at rest the question whether distortion of the film really takes place when proper precautions are taken. This will be done both by the method I have employed before, and also in accordance with M. Paschon's proposal to measure images of such reticules as above described: this reticule might, as he has suggested, be photographed during the transit of Venus, so that each plate would thus bear data for the correction due to unequal shrinkage, if such were to take place.

It has been objected by some astronomers who have casually examined solar photograms that the limb of the sun appears, as a consequence of the gradual shading off, even under a small magnifying power, not bounded by a sharp contour; but the measurements of such photograms which have been made during the last ten years of pictures, taken under the most varying conditions which influence definition, have proved that even the worst picture leads to a very satisfactory determination of the sun's semidiameter and centre; moreover an independent examination of this question by M. Paschen gave as the result that the mean error of a determination is only ± 0.008 millimetre with a sun-picture of 4 Paris inches in diameter; this corresponds to ±0″.135, and it is nearly three times less than that resulting from a measurement with the Konigsberg heliometer.

Nevertheless it will be seen from the foregoing remarks that I have not hesitated to arouse your attention to the fact that Astronomical Photography is about to be put to the severest test possible in dealing with such a fundamental problem of astronomy as the determination of the sun's distance from the earth. An intimate knowledge of the subject, however, and experience with respect to work already accomplished in the Kew ten-year solar observations, inspire me with a confident anticipation that it will prove fully equal to the occasion.

So much for performances to be looked forward to in the future: now let me briefly review what Astronomical Photography has already undoubtedly accomplished.

In the first instance the possibility proved of giving to the photographic method of observation a trustworthiness which direct observations can never quite obtain, will render the results of our discussion of the ten years' solar observations at Kew more free from doubts than those observational series on the Sun's spots which have preceded ours. The evidence of a probable connexion between planetary positions and solar activity, and the evidence which we have published on the nature of spots as depressions of solar matter, could never have been brought forward but page 6 for the preservation of true records of the phenomena through a number of years, while the closer agreement of the calculated results in reference to solar elements is itself evidence of the intrinsic truthfulness of the method, and gives the highest promise that our final deductions, which will be completed in the course of the ensuing year, will not be unworthy of the exertions which I, in conjunction with my friends B. Stewart and B. Loewy, have constantly devoted to this work during a period of fully ten years. Not only will some doubtful questions be set finally at rest by it, but new facts of the greatest interest will result, bearing on the laws which appear to govern solar activity.

By nothing, however, would the claims of photographic observation, as one of the most important instruments of scientific research, seem to be so thoroughly well established as by the history of recent solar eclipses. It will be recollected that in 1860 for the first time the solar origin of the prominences was placed beyond doubt solely by photography, which preserved a faithful record of the moon's motion in relation to these protuberances. The photographs of Tennant at Guntour, and of Vogel at Aden, in 1868, and also those of the American astronomers at Burlington and Ottumwa, Iowa, in 1869, under Professors Morton and Mayer, have fully confirmed those results. In a similar manner the great problem of the solar origin of that portion of the corona which extends more than a million of miles beyond the body of the sun has been by the photographic observations of Col. Tonnant and Lord Lindsay in 1871 set finally at rest, after having been the subject of a great amount of discussion for some years.

The spectroscopic discovery in 1809 of the now famous green line, 1474 K, demonstrated undoubtedly the self-luminosity, and hence the solar origin of part of the corona. Those who denied the possibility of any extensive atmosphere above the chromosphere received the observation with great suspicion; but in 1870 and again in 1871 it was fully verified. So far, therefore, the testimony of spectroscopic observations was in favour of the solar origin of the inner corona.

Indeed the observations of 1871 have proved hydrogen to be also an essential constituent of the "coronal atmosphere," as Janssen proposes to call it,—hydrogen at a lower temperature and density, of course, than in the chromosphere. Janssen was further so fortunate as to catch glimpses of some of the dark lines of the solar spectrum in the coronal light, an observation which goes far to show that in the upper atmosphere of the sun there are also solid or liquid particles, like smoke or cloud, which reflect the sunlight from below. Many problems, however, even with refer-once to the admittedly solar part of the corona, are unsettled. The first relates to the nature of the substance which produces the line 1474 K. Since it coincides with a line in the spectrum of iron, it is by many considered due to that metal; but then we must suppose either that iron vapour is less dense than hydrogen gas, or that it is subject to some peculiar solar repulsion which maintains it at its elevation, or other hypotheses may be suggested for explaining the fact. Since the line is one of the least conspicuous in the spectrum of iron and the shortest, and as none of the others are found associated with it in the coronal spectrum, it seems natural; as many have done, to assume at once that it is due to some new kind of matter. But the observations of Angstrom, Roscoe, and Clifton, and recently those of Schuster regarding the spectrum of nitrogen, render it probable that elementary bodies have only one spectrum, and since in all experimental spectra we necessarily operate only on a small thickness of a substance, we cannot say what new lines may be given out in cases where there is an immense thickness of vapour; and hence we cannot conclude with certainty that because there is an unknown line in the chromosphere or corona, it implies a new substance. Another problem, the most perplexing of all, is the reconciliation of the strangely discordant observations upon the polarization of the coronal light; but I will at once proceed to the points on which photography alone can give us decisive information.

The nature and conditions of the outer corona (the assemblage of dark rifts and bright rays which overlies and surrounds the inner corona) was very incompletely studied; and the question whether it is solar was not finally settled in the opinions of astronomers of high repute. Some believed it to be caused by some action of our atmosphere; and others supposed it due to cosmical dust between us page 7 and the moon. The bright light of the corona and the prominences most undoubtedly cause a certain amount of atmospheric glare; and although it is difficult to see how this is to account for the rays and rifts, it would be rash to deny that it may do so in some manner yet to be discovered. It is quite certain that some of the phenomena observed just at the beginning and end of totality are really caused by it. A light haze of meteoric dust between us and the moon might give results much resembling those observed; but when we come to details this theory seems to be doubtful.

Here photography steps in to pave the way out of the existing doubts. If the rays and rifts were really atmospheric, it would hardly be possible that they should present the same appearance at different stations along the line of totality: indeed they would probably change their appearance every moment, even at the same station. If they are cislunar, the same appearances could not be recorded at distant stations. It is universally admitted that proof of the invariability of these markings, and especially of their identity as seen at widely separated stations, would amount to a demonstration of their extraterrestrial origin. Eye-sketches cannot be depended on; the drawings made by persons standing side by side differ often to an extent that is most perplexing. Now photographs have, undoubtedly, as yet failed to catch many of the faint markings and delicate details; but their testimony, as far as it goes, is unimpeachable. In 1870, Lord Lindsay at Santa Maria, Professor Winlock at Jerez, Air. Brothers at Syracuse, obtained pictures some of which, on account partly of the unsatisfactory state of the weather, could not compare with Mr. Brother's picture obtained with an instrument of special construction*; but all show one deep rift especially, which seemed to cut down through both the outer and inner corona clear to the limb of the moon. Even to the naked eye it was one of the most conspicuous features of the eclipse. Many other points of detail also come out identical in the Spanish and Sicilian pictures; but whatever doubts may have still existed in regard of the inner corona were finally dispelled by the pictures taken in India, in 1871, by Colonel Tennant and Lord Lindsay's photographic assistant, Mr. Davis.

None of the photographs of 1871 shows so great an extension of the corona as is seen in Mr. Brother's photograph, taken at Syracuse in 1870; but, on the other hand, the coronal features are perfectly defined on the several pictures, and the number of the photographs renders the value of the series singularly great. The agreement between the views, as well those taken at different times during totality as those taken at different stations, fully proves the solar theory of the inner corona. We have in all the views the same extensive corona, with persistent rifts similarly situated. Moreover there is additional evidence indicated by the motion of the moon across the solar atmospheric appendages, proving in a similar manner as in 1860 in reference to the protuberances, the solar origin of that part of the corona.

It will be well here to mention a difficulty which occurs in recording the fainter solar appendages, namely the encroachment of the prominences and the corona on the lunar disk when the plates have to be overexposed in order to bring out the faint details of the corona. It is satisfactory to find that whenever a difficulty arises it can be mastered by proper attention. Lord Lindsay and Mr. Ranyard have successfully devoted themselves to experiments on the subject. They tested whether reflections from the back surface of the plate played any part in the production of the fringes: for this purpose plates of ebonite and the so-called non-actinic yellow glass were prepared; and it was immediately found that the outer haze had completely disappeared in the photographs taken on ebonite, while on the yellow glass plates it is much fainter than on ordinary white glass plates. By placing a piece of wetted black paper at the back of an unground plate, the outer haze was greatly reduced; but by grinding both the back and the front sup-

* Mr. Brothers had, in 1870, the happy idea to employ a so-called rapid rectilinear photographic lens, made by Dallmeyer, of 4 inches aperture and 30 inches focal length, mounted equatorially, and driven by clockwork; and he was followed in this matter by both Col. Tennant and Lord Lindsay in 1871 The focal imago produced, however, is far too small (3/10 of an inch, about); therefore it will be desirable in future to prepare lenses of similar construction, but of longer focal length and corresponding aperture.

page 8 faces of a yellow glass plate, and covering the back with a coating of black varnish, it was rendered quite imperceptible, thus showing the greatest part of the so-called photographic irradiation to be due to reflection from the second surface.

In connexion with the solution of the most prominent questions connected with the solar envelopes, it may not be without great interest to allude to another point conclusively decided during the last annular eclipse of the sun, observed by Mr. Pogson on the 6th of June of this year, as described by him in a letter to Sir George B. Airy. In 1870 Professor Young was the first to observe the reversal of the Frauenhofer lines in the stratum closest to the sun. Now, in 1871 doubts were thrown upon the subject. It appeal's that the reversed lines seem to have been satisfactorily observed by Captain Maclear at Bekul, Colonel Tennant at Dodabetta, and Captain Fyers at Jaffna. The observations of Pringle at Bekul, Respighi at Paodoxottan, and Pogson at Avenashi were doubtful, while Mosely at Trincomalee saw nothing of this reversal, which is, according to all accounts, a most striking phenomenon, although of very short duration. Mr. Lockyer missed it by an accidental derangement of the telescope. The reversal and the physical deductions from it are placed beyond doubt by Mr. Pogson's observations of the annular eclipse on June 6th. At the first internal contact, just after a peep in the finder had shown the moon's limb lighted up by the corona, he saw all the dark lines reversed and bright, but for less than two seconds. The sight of beauty above all was, however, the reversion of the lines at the breaking-up of the limb. The duration was astonishing—five to seven seconds; and the fading-out was gradual, not momentary. This does not accord with Captain Maclear's observations in 1870, who reports the disappearance of the bright spectrum as "not instantly, but so rapidly that I could not make out the order of their going." Professor Young again says that "they flashed out like the stars from a rocket-head." But discrepancies in this minor point may be accounted for by supposing differences in quietude of that portion of the sun's limb last covered by the moon.

The mention of the solar appendages recalls to mind another instance in which photography has befriended the scientific investigator. I allude to the promising attempt which has been made by Professor Young to photograph the protuberances of the sun in ordinary daylight. A distinct reproduction of some of the double-headed prominences on the sun's limb was obtained; and although as a picture the impression may be of little value, still there is every reason to believe, now that the possibility of the operation is known, that with bettor and more suitable apparatus an exceedingly valuable and reliable record may be secured. Professor Young employed for the purpose a spectroscope containing seven prisms, fitted to a telescope of 6½-inch aperture, after the eyepiece of the same had been removed. A camera, with the sensitive plate, was attached to the end of the spectroscope, the eyepiece of which acted in the capacity of a photographic lens, and projected the image on the collodion film. The exposure was necessarily along one, amounting to three minutes and a half. The eyepiece of the spectroscope was unsuitable for photographic purposes, and only in the centre yielded a true reproduction of the lines free from any distortion. A larger telescope, with a suitable secondary magnifier, will be required, in order to secure a more defined image.

I have hitherto spoken of the successful applications of photography to astronomy; but I must point out also some cases where it has failed. Nebulae and comets have not yet been brought within the grasp of this art, although, perhaps, no branch of astronomy would gain more if we should hereafter succeed in extending to these bodies that mode of observing them. There is theoretically, and even practically, no real limit to the sensitiveness of a plate. Similarly with reference to planets great difficulties still exist, which must be overcome before their phases and physical features can be recorded to some purpose by photography; yet there is great hope that the difficulties may be ultimately surmounted. The main obstacle to success arises from atmospheric currents, which are continually altering the position of the image on the sensitive plate; the structure of the sensitive film is also an interfering cause for such small objects. A photograph taken at Cranford of the occultation of Saturn by the moon some time ago exhibits the ring of the planet in a manner which holds out some promise for the future.

The moon, on the other hand, has been for some time past very successfully page 9 photographed; but no use has hitherto been made of lunar photographs for the purposes of measurement.

The photographs of the moon are free from distortion, and offer therefore material of incalculable value as the basis of a selenographic map of absolute trustworthiness, and also for the solution of the great problem of the moon's physical libration. This question can be solved with certainty by a series of systematic measurements of the distance of definite lunar points from the limb. Mr. Ellery, Director of the Observatory of Melbourne, has sent over an enlargement of a lunar photograph taken with the Great Melbourne Telescope, in which the primary image is 3-3/16 inches in diameter. Such lunar negatives would be admirably adapted for working out the problem of the physical libration, and also for fundamental measurements for a selenographic map; the more minute details, however, would have to be supplied by eye-observations, as the best photograph fails to depict all that the eye sees with the help of optical appliances. On the other hand, selenographic positions would be afforded more free from error than those to be obtained by direct micrometrical measurements.

Although, as I have stated, I do not contemplate passing in review recent discoveries in astronomy, I must not omit to call your attention to some few subjects of engrossing interest. First, with reference to the more recent work of Dr. Huggins. In his observations ho found that the brightest line of the three bright lines which constitute the spectrum of the gaseous nebulae was coincident with the brightest of the lines of the spectrum of nitrogen; but the aperture of his telescope did not permit him to ascertain whether the line in the nebulae was double, as is the case with the line of nitrogen. With the large telescope placed in his hands by the Royal Society, he has found that the line in the nebula; is not double, and in the case of the groat nebula in Orion it coincides in position with the less refrangible of the two lines which make up the corresponding nitrogen-line. He has not yet been able to find a condition of luminous nitrogen in which the line of this gas is single and narrow and defined like the nebular line.

He has extended the method of detecting a star's motion in the line of sight by a change of refrangibility in the line of a terrestrial substance existing on the star to about 30 stars besides Sirius. The comparisons have been made with lines of hydrogen, magnesium, and sodium. In consequence of the extreme difficulty of the investigation, the numerical velocities of the stars have been obtained by estimation, and are to be regarded as provisional only. It will be observed that, speaking generally, the stars which the spectroscope shows to be moving from the earth, as Sirius, Betelgeux, Rigel, Procyon, are situated in a part of the heavens opposite to Hercules, towards which the sun is advancing; while the stars in the neighbourhood of this region, as Areturus, Vega, and a Cygni, show a motion of approach. There are, however, in the stars already observed, exceptions to this general statement; and there are some other considerations, as the relative velocities of the stars, which appear to show that the sun's motion in space is not the only or even in all cases the chief cause of the observed proper motions of the stars. In the observed stellar motions we have to do probably with two other independent motions—namely, a movement common to certain groups of stars and also a motion peculiar to each star. Thus the stars β, γ δ, ∊ ζ of the Great Bear, which have similar proper motions, have a common motion of recession; while the star a of the same constellation, which has a proper motion in the opposite direction, is shown by the spectroscope to be approaching the earth. From further researches in this direction, and from an investigation of the motions of stars in the line of sight in conjunction with their proper motions at right angles to the visual direction obtained by the ordinary methods, we may hope to gain some definite knowledge of the constitution of the heavens.

This discovery supports, in a somewhat striking manner, the views which Mr. Proctor has been urging respecting the distribution of the stars in space. According to these views there exist within the sidereal system subordinate systems of stars forming distinct aggregations, in which many orders of real magnitude exist, while around them is relatively barren space. He had inferred the existence of such systems from the results of processes of equal-surface charting applied successively to stars of gradually diminishing orders of brightness. He found the same regions of aggregation, whether the charts included stars to the page 10 sixth order only or were extended, as in his chart of the northern heavens, to the tenth and eleventh orders; and these regions of aggregation are the very regions where the elder Herschel found the faintest telescopic stars to congregate. Applying a new system of charting to show the proper motions of the stars, he found further evidence in favour of these views. The charts indicated the existence of concurrent motions among the members of several groups or sets of stars. Selecting one of the more striking instances as affording what appeared to him a crucial test of the reality of this star-drift, Mr. Proctor announced his belief that whenever the spectroscopic method of determining stellar motions of recess or approach should be applied to the five stars β, γ, δ, ∊, and £ Ursae Majoris, these orbs (which formed a drifting set in the chart of proper motions) would be found to be drifting collectively either towards or from the earth: this has been confirmed.

The time has now come for more closely investigating the various theories which have been propounded by such profound thinkers as Tyndall, Tait, Reynolds, and others, to account for the phenomena of Comets. I do not propose to enter into a statement of these theories; but I venture to call your attention to Zollner's views, which have recently given rise to a great amount of controversy. In doing so, I am solely influenced by a desire to give information on this subject, without implying thereby that I give my adherence, or even preference, to his theory.*

The vaporization of even solid bodies at low temperatures suggests that a mass of matter in space will ultimately surround itself with its own vapour, the tension of which will depend upon the mass of the body (that is, upon its gravitative energy) and the temperature. If the mass of the body is so small that its attractive force is insufficient to give to the enveloping vapour its maximum tension for the existing temperature, the evolution of vapour will be continuous until the whole mass is converted into it. It is proved by analysis that such a mass of gas or vapour in empty and unlimited space is in a condition of unstable equilibrium, and must become dissipated by continual expansion and consequent decrease of density. It follows that celestial spaces, at least within the limits of the stellar universe, must be filled with matter in the form of gas.

A fluid mass existing in space at a distance from the sun or other body radiating heat would, if its mass were not too great, be converted entirely into vapour after the lapse of sufficient time. But if the fluid mass approach the sun, solar heat would occasion a more rapid development of vapour on the sunward side; and the total vaporization would require an incomparably short time with reference to the interval necessary in the former case; this time would be shorter the smaller the mass of the body. Professor Zollner points to the smaller comets, which often appear as spherical masses of vapour, as examples of such bodies, while the spectra of some of the nebula; and smaller comets render the existence of fluid masses giving out vapour highly probable.

The self-luminosity and train of comets he refers to other causes. Two causes only are known through the operation of which gases become self-luminous—elevation of temperature (as bycombustion), or electrical excitement. Setting aside the first as involving theoretical difficulties, the second cause is demonstrated by him to be sufficient to account for the self-luminosity and the formation of the train, provided it be granted that electricity may be developed by the action of solar heat, if not in the process of evaporation, at least in the mechanical and molecular disturbances resulting from it. The production of electricity by such processes within the limits of our experience, must be admitted as a well-known tact. The spectrum of the vaporous envelope of a comet, illuminated in this manner, must necessarily be that produced by the passage of an electrical discharge through vapour identical in substance with a portion of the comet's nucleus, from which the envelope is derived. As, according to this supposition, water and liquid hydrocarbons are important constituents of these bodies, the spectra of the comets should be such as belong to the vapours of these substances; and in this manner the resemblance and partial coincidence of the observed cometic spectra with those of gaseous hydrocarbons is explained.

The form and direction of the train indicate undoubtedly the action of a repulsive force; and Professor Zollner asserts that the assumption of an electrical action

* See Appendix, p. 12.

page 11 of the sun upon bodies of the solar system is necessary and sufficient to account for all the essential and characteristic phenomena of the vaporous envelope and the train. The direction of the train, towards or from the sun, is, according to this theory, to be easily explained by, the supposition of a variability in the mutual electrical conditions. This accords perfectly with the phenomena observed in the development of electricity by vapour-streams in the hydroelectric machine, where the sign of the electricity depends upon the presence or absence of various substances in the boiler or the tubes.

The theory acquires an additional interest from Schiaparelli's remarkable discovery of the identity of the paths of certain comets with great meteor-streams, since the meteoric masses must inevitably be converted into vapour on approaching the sun, with exhibition of the characteristic appearances of the comets.

The intimate connexion of planetary configuration and solar spots, of the latter and terrestrial magnetism and auroral phenomena, must tend to establish also a connexion between solar spots and solar radiation. It is demonstrated by the researches of Piazzi Smyth, Stone, and Cleveland Abbe, that there is a connexion between the amount of heat received from the sun and the prevalence of spots—a result clearly in harmony with those derived from recent investigations into the nature of the solar atmosphere. Further, in a paper by Mr. Meldrum, of Mauritius, which will be read before you during this session, most remarkable evidence is given on the close connexion of these phenomena. It appears that the cyclones of the Indian Ocean have a periodicity corresponding with the sun-spot periodicity; so that if an observer in another planet could see and measure the sun-spots and cyclones (earth-spots), he would find a close harmony between them. Such a connexion will probably be found to exist over the globe generally; but with reference to the Indian Ocean it may be stated as a matter of fact, from Mr. Meldrum's discussion of twenty-five years' observations, that in the area lying between the equator and 25° south latitude, and between 40° and 110° east longitude, the frequency of cyclones has varied during that period directly as the amount of sun-spots. I am glad to be able to announce that Mr. Meldrum, in order to place the deductions on a still broader foundation, proposes to investigate these laws on a plan perfectly in agreement with our method of determining the areas of solar disturbances, the results of which have been published from time to time during the last ten years. Moreover the observations on the periodic changes of Jupiter's appearance, and the observations of Mr. Baxendell that the convection-currents of our earth vary according to the sunspot period—all these results, seemingly solitary, but truly in mysterious harmony, point to the absolute necessity for establishing constant photographic records of solar and terrestrial phenomena all over the world. No astronomer or physicist should lose any opportunity of assisting in this great aim, by which alone unbiased truthful records of phenomena can be preserved. What is more, no system of observations can be carried on at a less expense.

We have hopes of seeing the photographic method as applied to sun-observations joined to the work of the Greenwich Observatory; but what is further wanted is the erection of instruments for photographic records'and of spectroscopes in a number of observatories throughout the world, so as to obtain daily records of the sun and to observe magnetical and meteorological phenomena continuously in connexion with solar activity. Meteorological observation is storing up useful facts; but they can only be dealt with effectually if investigated in close parallelism with other cosmical phenomena. Only when this is done may we hope to penetrate the maze of local meteorological phenomena and elevate meteorology to the rank of a science. The time has really come not only for relieving private observers from the systematic observation of solar phenomena, but for drawing close ties between all scattered scientific observations, so as to let one grand scheme embrace the whole; and no method seems to be so well adapted to bring about this great achievement than the method of photographing the phenomena of nature, which in its very principle carries with it all extinction of individual bias.

In conclusion I cannot refrain from making a passing allusion to a Royal Commission, presided over by the Duke of Devonshire, which has been sitting for some time past; for I believe that its labours will have an important bearing on all that relates to scientific education and the promotion of science in this country. The time has come when the cultivation of science must be protected and fostered by page 12 the state; it can no longer be safely left to individual efforts. If England is to continue to hold a high position among civilized nations, the most anxious care must be given to the establishment by the state of such an organized system for the advancement of science and the utilization of the work of scientific men as will be in" harmony with similar organizations in neighbouring states—for examples, France, Germany, and Russia.