The Solar System

Though the sun seems to perform a daily circuit around our globe, he may be said, in this respect, to be fixed and immovable. This motion is not real, but only apparent, and is owing to the globe on which we are placed moving round its axis from west to east; just as the objects on the bank of a river seem to move in a contrary direction, when we are sailing along its stream in a steamboat. The only motion which is found to exist in the sun is a motion of rotation, like that of a globe or ball twirled round a pivot or axis, which is performed in the space of twenty-five days and ten hours. This motion has been ascertained by means of a variety of dark spots which are discovered by the telescope on the sun's disc; which first appear on his eastern limb, and after a period of about thirteen days, disappear on his western, and after a similar period reappear on his eastern edge. These spots are various, both in number, in magnitude, and in shape: sometimes forty or fifty, and sometimes only one or two, are visible, and at other times the sun appears entirely without spots. Most of them have a very dark nucleus, or central part, surrounded by an umbra, or fainter shade. Some of the spots are as large as would cover the whole continent of Europe, Asia, and Africa, others have been observed of the size of the whole surface of the earth; and one was seen, in the year 1779, which was computed to be more than fifty thousand miles in diameter.

With regard to the nature of this globe—it appears highly probable, from the observations of Sir W. Herschel, that the sun is a solid and opaque body, surrounded with luminous clouds which float in the solar atmosphere, and that the dark nucleus of the spots is the opaque body of the sun appearing through occasional openings in this atmosphere. The hight of the atmosphere he computes to be not less than 1843, nor more than 2755 miles, consisting of two regions; that nearest the sun being opaque, and probably resembling the clouds of our earth: the outermost emitting vast quantities of light, and forming the apparent luminous globe we behold.

The sun is the grand source of light and heat, both to the earth and to all the other planetary bodies. The heat he diffuses animates every part of our sublunary system, and all that variety of coloring which adorns the terrestrial landscape is produced by his rays. It has been lately discovered that the rays of light and the rays of heat, or caloric, are distinct from each other; for it can be demonstrated, that some rays from the sun produce heat, which have no power of communicating light or color. The greatest heat is found in the red rays, the least in the violet rays; and in a space beyond the red rays, where there is no light, the temperature is greatest. The rays of the sun have also been found to produce different chemical effects. The white muriate of silver is blackened in the violet ray in the space of fifteen seconds, though the red will not produce the same effect in less than twenty minutes. Phosphorus is kindled in the vicinity of the red ray, and extinguished in the vicinity of the violet. The solar light, therefore, consists of three different order[gap — reason: unclear] of rays, one producing color, a second producing heat, and a third chemical effects. Euler has computed that the light of the sun is equal to 6500 candles at a foot distance, while the moon would be as one candle at 7 1/2 feet; Venus at 421 feet; and Jupiter at 1320 feet.—That this immense luminary appears so small to our eyes is owing to its vast distance, which is no less than ninety-five millions of miles. Some faint idea of this distance may be obtained, by considering that a steamboat, moving at the rate of 200 miles a-day, would require thirteen hundred years before it could traverse the space which intervenes between us and the sun.

“Hail, sacred source of inexhausted light!
Prodigious instance of creating might.
His distance man's imagination foils;
Numbers will scarce avail to count the miles.
As swift as thought he darts his radiance round
To distant worlds, his system's utmost bound.”

The planet Mercury.—Mercury is the nearest planet to the sun that has yet been discovered.—He is about 37 millions of miles distant from the sun, and revolves around him in 88 days. His diameter is about 3200 miles. Before the discovery of the four new planets, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta, in the beginning of the present century, this globe was considered as the smallest primary planet in the system. His surface, however, contains above 32 millions of square miles, which is not much less than all the habitable parts of our globe. On account of his nearness to the sun he is seldom seen by the naked eye; being always near that quarter of the heavens where the sun appears; and therefore few discoveries have been made on his surface by the telescope. M. Schroeter concludes, from certain observations, that this planet revolves round its axis in twenty-four hours and five minutes. The sun will appear to an inhabitant of Mercury seven times larger than to an inhabitant of the earth: and if the degree of heat be in proportion to a planet's nearness to the sun, the heat in this planet will be seven times greater than on the surface of our globe; and consequently, were the earth placed in the same position, all the water on its surface would boil, and soon be turned into vapor. But the All-wise Creator has doubtless attempered the surface of that globe, and the constitution of the beings that may occupy it, to the situation in which they are placed.^*

The Earth is the next planet in the system.—It moves round the sun in 365 days 5 hours and 49 minutes, at the distance of 95 millions of miles, and round its axis in 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds. The former is called its annual, and the latter its diurnal motion. That the earth is, in reality, a moving body, is a fact which can no longer be called in question; it is indeed susceptible of the clearest demonstration. But my limits will not permit to enter into a detail of the arguments by which it is supported. I have already adverted to one consideration, from which its diurnal rotation may be inferred.^* Either the earth moves round its axis every day, or the whole universe moves round it in the same time. To suppose the latter case to be the fact would involve a reflection on the wisdom of its Almighty Author, and would form the only exception that we know to that beautiful proportion, harmony, and simplicity, which appear in all the works of Nature. Were it possible to construct a machine as large as the city of London, and apply to it mechanical powers sufficient to make it revolve on an axis, so as to carry round a furnace for the purpose of roasting a joint of mutton, suspended in the center of its motion—while we might admire the ingenuity and the energies displayed in its construction—all mankind would unite in condemning it as a display of consummate folly. But such an extravagant piece of machinery would not be half so preposterous as to suppose, that the vast universe is daily revolving around our little globe, and that all the planetary motions have an immediate respect to it. And shall we dare ascribe to Him who is “the only wise God,” contrivances which we would pronounce to be the perfection of folly in mankind? It is recorded of the astronomer Alphonsus, king of Castile, who lived in the 13th century, that, after having studied the Ptolemaic system, which supposes the earth at rest in the center of the universe, he uttered the following impious sentence: “If I had been of God's privy council when he made the world, I would have advised him better.” So that false conceptions of the System of Nature lead to erroneous notions of that adorable Being who is possessed of Infinite Perfection.—We find that bodies much larger than the earth have a similar rotation. The planet Jupiter, a globe 295,000 miles in circumference, moves round its axis in less than ten hours; and all the other planetary bodies, on which spots have been discovered, are found to have a diurnal motion. Beside, it is found to be a universal law of nature that smaller globes revolve around larger; but there is no example in the universe, of a larger body revolving around a smaller. The moon revolves around the earth, but she is much smaller than the earth; the moons which move around Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel, are all less than their primaries, and the planets which perform their revolutions around the sun are much less than that central luminary.

The Moon.—Next to the sun, the moon is to us the most interesting of all the celestial orbs.—She is the constant attendant of the earth, and revolves around it in 27 days 8 hours; but the period from one new or full moon to another, is about 29 days 12 hours. She is the nearest of all the heavenly bodies; being only about two hundred and forty thousand miles distant from the earth. She is much smaller than the earth; being only 2180 miles in diameter. Her surface, when viewed with a telescope, presents an interesting and a variegated aspect; being diversified with mountains, valleys, rocks, and plains, in every variety of form and position. Some of these mountains form long and elevated ridges, resembling the chains of the Alps and the Andes; while others, of a conical form, rise to a great hight, from the middle of level plains, somewhat resembling the Peak of Teneriffe. But the most singular feature of the moon is, those circular ridges and cavities which diversify every portion of her surface. A range of mountains of a circular form, rising three or four miles above the level of the adjacent districts, surrounds, like a mighty rampart, an extensive plain; and, in the middle of this plain or cavity, an insulated conical hill rises to a considerable elevation. Several hundreds of these circular plains, most of which are considerably below the level of the surrounding country, may be perceived with a good telescope, on every region of the lunar surface. They are of all dimensions, from two or three miles to forty miles in diameter; and, if they be adorned with verdure, they must present to the view of a spectator, placed among them, a more variegated, romantic, and sublime scenery than is to be found on the surface of our globe. An idea of some of these scenes may be acquired, by conceiving a plain of about a hundred miles in circumference, encircled with a range of mountains, of various forms, three miles in perpendicular hight, and having a mountain near the center, whose top reaches a mile and a half above the level of the plain. From the top of this central mountain, the whole plain, with all its variety of objects, would be distinctly visible; and the view would appear to be bounded on all sides by a lofty amphitheater of mountains, in every diversity of shape, rearing their summits to the sky. From the summit of the circular ridge, the conical hill in the center, the opposite circular range, the plain below, and some of the adjacent plains, which encompass the exterior ridge of the mountains, would form another variety of view;—and a third variety would be obtained from the various aspects of the central mountain, and the surrounding scenery as viewed from the plains below.

The lunar mountains are of all sizes, from a furlong to five miles in perpendicular elevation. Certain luminous spots, which have been occationally seen on the dark side of the moon, seem to demonstrate that fire exists in this planet. Sir W. Herschel, and several other astronomers, suppose that they are volcanoes in a state of eruption. It would be a more pleasing idea, and perhaps as nearly corresponding to fact, to suppose, that these phenomena are owing to some occasional splendid illuminations produced by the lunar inhabitants, during their long nights. Such a scene is the burning of Moscow, the conflagration of an extensive forest, or the splendid illumination of a large city with gas-light, might present similar appearances to a spectator in the moon.—The bright spots on the moon are the mountainous regions: the dark spots are the plains, or more level parts of the surface. There may probably be rivers or small lakes on this planet; but there are no seas or large collections of water It appears highly probable, from the observations of Schroeter, that the moon is encompassed with an atmosphere: but no clouds, rain; or snow, seem to exist in it. The illuminating power of the light derived from the moon, according to the experiments made by professor Leslie, is about the one hundred and fifty thousandth part of the illuminating power of the sun. According to the experiments of M. Bouguer, it is only as 1 to 300,000.

The moon always presents the same face to us, which proves, that she revolves round her axis in the same time that she revolves round the earth As this orb derives its light from the sun, and reflects a portion of it upon the earth, so the earth performs the same office to the moon. A spectator on the lunar surface would behold the earth like a luminous orb suspended in the vault of heaven, presenting a surface about 13 times larger than the moon does to us, and appearing sometimes gibbous, sometimes horned, and at other times with a round full face. The light which the earth reflects upon the dark side of the moon may be distinctly perceived by a common telescope, from two to six or eight days after the change.—The lunar surface contains about 15 millions of square miles, and is, therefore, capable of containing a population equal to that of our globe, allowing only about 53 inhabitants to every square mile. That this planet is inhabited by sensitive and intelligent beings, there is every reason to conclude, from a consideration of the sublime scenery with which, its surface is adorned, and of the general beneficence of the Creator, who appears to have left no large portion of his material creation without animated existences; and it is highly probable, that direct proofs of the moon's being inhabited may hereafter be obtained, when all the varieties on her surface shall have been more minutely explored.^*

The New Planets.—Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, four planetary bodies have been lately discovered, accompanied with circumstances somewhat different from those of the other bodies which compose our system. They are named Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta. The planet Ceres was discovered at Palermo, in Sicily, by M. Piazzi, on the first day of the present century. It is of a ruddy color, and appears about the size of a star of the eighth magnitude, and is consequently invisible to the naked eye. It performs its revolution in 4 years and 7 months, at the distance of 260 millions of miles from the sun, and is reckoned by some astronomers to be about 1624 miles in diameter, or about half the diameter of Mercury. It appears to be surrounded with a large dense atmosphere.—Pallas was discovered the following year, namely, on the 28th March, 1802, by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen. It is supposed to be about 2000 miles in diameter, or nearly the size of the moon. It revolves about the sun in 4 years and 7 months, or nearly in the same time as Ceres, at the distance of 266 millions of miles; and is surrounded with a nebulosity or atmosphere above 400 miles in hight, similar to that of Ceres.—The planet Juno was discovered on the 1st September, 1804, by Mr. Harding, of Bremen. Its mean distance from the sun is about 253 millions of miles; its revolution is completed in 4 years and 130 days, and its diameter is computed to be about 1425 miles. It is free from the nebulosity which surrounds Pallas, and is distinguished from all the other planets by the great eccentricity of its orbit; being at its least distance from the sun only 189 millions of miles, and at its greatest distance, 316 millions.—Vesta was discovered by Dr. Olbers on the 29th March, 1807. It appears like a star of the fifth or sixth magnitude, and may sometimes be distinguished by the naked eye. Its light is more intense and white than any of the other three, and it is not surrounded with any nebulosity. It is distant from the sun about 225 millions of miles, and completes its revolutions in 3 years and 240 days. Its diameter has not yet been accurately ascertained; but from the intensity of its light and other circumstances, it is concluded, that it is not inferior in magnitude to either Pallas or Juno.

These planetary globes present to our view a variety of anomalies and singularities, which appear incompatible with the regularity, proportion, and harmony, which were formerly supposed to characterize the arrangements of the Solar system.—They are bodies much smaller in size than the other planets—they revolve nearly at the same distances from the sun, and perform their revolutions in nearly the same periods—their orbits are much more eccentric, and have a much greater degree of inclination to the ecliptic, than those of the old planets—and, what is altogether singular (except in the case of comets), their orbits cross each other; so that there is a possibility that two of these bodies might happen to interfere, and to strike each other, in the course of their revolutions. The orbit of Ceres crosses the orbit of Pallas. Vesta may sometimes be at a greater distance from the sun than either Ceres, Pallas, or Juno, although its mean distance is less than that of either of them, by several millions of miles; so that the orbit of Vesta crosses the orbits of all the other three. From these and other circumstances, it has, with a high degree of probability, been concluded—that these four planets are the fragments of a large celestial body which once revolved between Mars and Jupiter, and which had been burst asunder by some immense irruptive force. This idea seems to have occurred to Dr Olbers, after he had discovered the planet Pallas, and he imagined that other fragments might possibly exist. He concluded, that, if they all diverged from the same point, “they ought to have two common points of reunion, or two nodes in opposite regions of the heavens, through which all the planetary fragments must sooner or later pass.” One of these nodes he found to be in the constellation Virgo, and the other in the Whale; and it is a remarkable coincidence, that it was in the latter of these regions that the planet Juno was discovered by Mr. Harding. In order to detect the remaining fragments (if any existed), Dr. Olbers examined, three times every year, all the small stars in Virgo and the Whale; and it was actually in the constellation Virgo that he discovered the planet Vesta. It is not unlikely that other fragments of a similar description may yet be discovered. Sir D. Brewster attributes the fall of meteoric stones^* to the smaller fragments of these bodies happening to come within the sphere of the earth's attraction. His ingenious reasoning on this subject, and in support of Dr Olbers’ hypothesis above stated, may be seen in Edin. Encyc., vol. ii, p. 641, and in his “supplementary chapters to Ferguson's Astronomy.”

The facts to which I have now adverted seem to unfold a new scene in the history of the dispensations of the Almighty, and to warrant the conclusion, that the earth is not the only globe in the universe which is subject to physical changes and moral revolutions.

But what chiefly distinguishes the surface of Jupiter, is several streaky appearances, or dusky stripes, which extend across his disc in lines parallel to his equator. These are generally termed his Belts. Three of these belts, or zones, nearly equi-distant from each other, are most frequently observed; but they are not regular or constant in their appearance.^* Sometimes only one is to be seen, sometimes five, and sometimes seven or eight have been visible; and in the latter case, two ot them have been known to disappear during the time of observation. On the 28th of May, 1780, Sir W. Herschel perceived “the whole surface of Jupiter covered with small curved belts, or rather lines, that were not continuous across his disc.” Though these belts are generally parallel to each other, yet they are not always so. Their breadth is likewise variable; one belt having been observed to grow narrow, while another in its neighborhood has increased in breadth, as if the one had flowed into the other. The time of their continuance is also uncertain; sometimes they remain unchanged for several months, at other times, new belts have been formed in an hour or two. What these belts, or variable appearances are, it is difficult to determine. Some have regarded them as strata of clouds floating in the atmosphere of Jupiter; while others imagine, that they are the marks of great physical revolutions which are perpetually changing the surface of that planet. The former opinion appears the most probable. But whatever be the nature of these belts, the sudden changes to which they are occasionally subject, seem to indicate the rapid operation of some powerful physical agency; for some of them are more than five thousand miles in breadth; and since they have been known to disappear in the space of an hour or two, or even during the time of a casual observation—agents more powerful than any with which we are acquainted must have produced so extensive an effect.

Fig. 21

Jupiter is attended by four satellites, or moons, which present a very beautiful appearance when viewed through a telescope. The first moon, or that nearest the planet, is 230,000 miles distant from its center, and goes round it in 42 1/2 hours; and will appear from its surface four times larger than our moon does to us. The second moon, being farther distant, will appear about the size of ours; the third, somewhat less; and the fourth which is a million of miles distant from Jupiter, and takes sixteen days to go round him, will appear only about one-third the diameter of our moon. These moons suffer frequent eclipses from passing through Jupiter's shadow, in the same way as our moon is eclipsed by passing through the shadow of the earth. By the eclipses of these moons, the motion of light was ascertained; and they are found to be of essential use, in determining the longitude of places on the surface of our globe. This planet, if seen from its nearest moon, will present a surface a thousand times as large as our moon does to us, and will appear in the form of a crescent, a half moon, a gibbous phase, and a full moon, in regular succession. every 42 hours.

The foregoing figure exhibits a view of Jupiter's belts and satellites as seen through a good telescope; but they do not always appear, two on each side, as here represented, but in every variety of position; and sometimes all on the same side, in the order of their distances; and they seem to move from one side to another, in nearly straight lines, on account of our eye being nearly on a level with the planes of their orbits.

Jupiter's axis being nearly perpendicular to his orbit, he has no sensible change of seasons, such as we experience on the earth. Were we placed on the surface of this planet, with the limited powers of vision we now possess, our earth and moon would entirely disappear, as if they were blotted out from the map of creation; and the inhabitants of these regions must have much better eyes than ours, if they know that there is in the universe such a globe as the earth.

Rings of Saturn.—The most extraordinary circumstance connected with this planet is, the phenomenon of a double ring, which surrounds its body, but nowhere touches it, being thirty thousand miles distant from any part of the planet, and is carried along with the planet in its circuit around the sun. This is the most singular and astonishing object in the whole range of the planetary system; no other planet being found environed with so wonderful an appendage; and the planets which may belong to other systems, being placed beyond the reach of our observations, no idea can be formed of the peculiar apparatus with which any of them may be furnished. This double ring consists of two concentric rings, detached from each other; the innermost of which is nearly three times as broad as the outermost The outside diameter of the exterior ring is 204,000 miles; and consequently, in circumference, will measure six hundred and forty thousand miles, or eighty times the diameter of our globe. Its breadth is 7200 miles, or nearly the diameter of the earth. Were four hundred and fifty globes, of the size of the earth, placed close to one another, on a plane, this immense ring would inclose the whole of them, together with all the interstices, or open spaces between the different globes. The outside diameter of the innermost ring is 184,000 miles, and its breadth 20,000 miles, or about 2 1/2 times broader than the diameter of the earth. The dark space, or interval between the two rings, is 2800 miles. The breadth of both the rings including the dark space between them, is thirty thousand miles, which is equal to the distance of the innermost ring from the body of Saturn.

The following figure represents a view of Saturn and his rings, as they would appear were our eye perpendicular to one of the planes of those rings; but our eye is never so much elevated above either plane as to have the visual ray standing at right angles to it: it is never elevated more than 30 degrees above the planes of the rings.

Fig. 22

When we view Saturn through a telescope, we always see the ring at an oblique angle, so that it appears of an oval form, the outward circular ring being projected into an ellipsis more or less oblong, according to the different degrees of obliquity with which it is viewed, as will be seen in the Frontispiece.

These rings cast a deep shadow upon the planet, which proves that they are not shining fluids, but composed of solid matter. They appear to be possessed of a higher reflective power than the surface of Saturn: as the light reflected by them is more brilliant than that of the planet. One obvious use of this double ring is, to reflect light upon the planet in the absence of the sun: in all probability, it also serves as an ample habitation for myriads of sensitive and intelligent beings; for the surfaces of the two rings contain no less than 228 millions of square miles, or about 600 times more than all the habitable parts of our globe, and it is not likely that, in the wise arrangements of the Creator, such an immense space would be left destitute of inhabitants: what other purposes it may be intended to subserve, in the system of Saturn, is at present to us unknown. The sun illuminates one side of it during fifteen page 87 years, or one half of the period of the planet's revolution; and, during the next fifteen years, the other side is enlightened in its turn. Twice in the course of thirty years, there is a short period, during which neither side is enlightened, and when, of course, it ceases to be visible;—namely, at the time when the sun ceases to shine on one side, and is about to shine on the other. It revolves round its axis, and consequently around Saturn, in ten hours and a half, which is at the rate of a thousand miles in a minute, or fifty-eight times swifter than the earth's equator. When viewed from the middle zone of the planet, in the absence of the sun, the rings will appear like vast luminous arches, extending along the canopy of heaven, from the eastern to the western horizon; having an apparent breadth equal to a hundred times the apparent diameter of our moon, and will be seen darkened about the middle, by the shadow of Saturn.^*

There is no other planet in the Solar system, whose firmament will present such a variety of splendid and magnificent objects, as that of Saturn. The various aspects of his seven moons, one rising above the horizon, while another is setting, and a third approaching to the meridian; one entering into an eclipse, and another emerging from it; one appearing as a crescent, and another with a gibbous phase; and sometimes the whole of them shining in the same hemisphere, in one bright assemblage;—the majestic motions of the rings,—at one time illuminating the sky with their splendor, and eclipsing the stars; at another, casting a deep shade over certain regions of the planet, and unvailing to view the wonders of the starry firmament—are scenes worthy of the majesty of the Divine Being to unfold, and of rational creatures to contemplate. Such magnificent displays of Wisdom and Omnipotence, lead us to conclude that the numerous splendid objects connected with this planet, were not created merely to shed their luster on naked rocks and barren sands; but that an immense population of intelligent beings is placed in those regions, to enjoy the bounty and to adore the perfections of their great Creator.

The double ring of Saturn, when viewed through a good telescope, generally appears like a luminous handle on each side of the planet, with a dark interval between the interior edge of the ring, and the convex body of Saturn; which is owing to its oblique position with respect to our line of vision. When its outer edge is turned directly toward the earth, it becomes invisible, or appears like a dark stripe across the disc of the planet as it did in 1832. This phenomenon happens once every fifteen years.

The Planet Herschel.—This planet, which is also known by the names of the Georgium Sidus, and Uranus, was discovered by Sir W. Herschel on the 13th of March, 1781. It is the most distant planet from the sun that has yet been discovered; being removed at no less than 1800 millions of miles from that luminary, which is nineteen times farther than the earth is from the sun—a distance so great, that a cannon ball, flying at the rate of 480 miles an hour, would not reach it in 400 years. Its diameter is about 35,000 miles; and of course, it is about eighty times larger than the earth. It appears like a star of the sixth magnitude; but can seldom be distinguished by the naked eye. It takes about 83 years and a half to complete its revolution round the sun; and, though it is the slowest moving body in the system, it moves at the rate of 15,000 miles an hour. As the degree of sensible heat in any planet does not appear to depend altogether on its nearness to the sun, the temperature of this planet may be as mild as that which obtains in the most genial climate of our globe.^* The diameter of the sun, as seen from Herschel, is little more than the apparent diameter of Venus as seen by the naked eye; and the light which it receives from that luminary, is 360 times less than what we experience; yet this proportion is found by calculation to be equal to the effect which would be produced by 248 of our full moons; and, in the absence of the sun, there are six moons which reflect light upon this distant planet, all of which were discovered likewise by Sir W. Herschel. Small as the proportion of light is which this planet receives from the sun, it is easy to conceive, that beings similar to man, placed on the surface of this globe, with a slight modification of their organs of vision, might be made to perceive objects with a clearness and distinctness even superior to what we can do. We have only to suppose, that the Creator has formed their eyes with pupils capable of a much larger expansion than ours; and has indued their retina with a much greater degree of nervous sensibility. At all events, we may rest assured, that He who has placed sentient beings in any region, has, by laws with which we are partly unacquainted, adapted the constitution of the inhabitant to the nature of the habitation.

“Strange and amazing must the difference be Twixt this dull planet and bright Mercury! Yet reason says, nor can we doubt at all, Millions of beings dwell on either ball, with constitutions fitted for that spot Where Providence, all-wise, has fixed their lot.”

Comets.—Beside the planetary globes to which I have now adverted, there is a class of celestial bodies which occasionally appear in the heavens, to which the name of Comets has been given. They are distinguished from the other celestial bodies, by their ruddy appearance, and by a long train of light, called the tail, which sometimes extends over a considerable portion of the heavens, and which is so transparent that the stars may be seen through it. The tail is always directed to that part of the heavens which is opposite to the sun, and increases in size as it approaches him, and is again gradually diminished, as the comet flies off to the more distant regions of space. Their apparent magnitude is very different: sometimes they appear only of the bigness of the fixed stars; at other times they equal the diameter of Venus; and sometimes they have appeared nearly as large as the Moon. They traverse the heavens in all directions, and cross the orbits of the planets. When examined through a telescope, they appear to consist of a dark central nucleus, surrounded by a dense, atmosphere, or mass of vapors. They have been ascertained to move in long narrow ellipses or ovals, around the sun; some of them, on their nearest approach to him, having been within a million of miles of his center: and then fly off to a region several thousands of millions of miles distant. When near the sun, they move with amazing velocity. The velocity of the comet which appeared in 1680, according to Sir Isaac Newton's calculation, was 880,000 miles an hour. They appear to be bodies of no great density, and their size seldom exceeds that of the moon. The length of the tails of some comets has been estimated at fifty millions of miles. According to Sir W. Herschel's computations, the solid nucleus, or central part of the comet which appeared in 1811, was only 428 miles in diameter; but the real diameter of the head or nebulous portion of the comet, he computed to be about 127,000 miles. The length of its tail he computed to be above one hundred millions of miles, and its breadth nearly fifteen millions. It was nearest to the earth on the 11th October, when its distance was 113 millions of miles. The number of comets which have occasionally been seen within the limits of our system, since the commencement of the Christian era, is about 500, of which the paths or orbits of more than a hundred have been calculated.

As these bodies cross the paths of the planets in every direction, there is a possibility that some of them might strike against the earth in their approach to the sun; and, were this to happen, the consequences would be awful beyond description. But we may rest assured that that Almighty Being who at first launched them into existence directs all their motions, however complicated; and that the earth shall remain secure against all such concussions from celestial agents, until the purposes of his moral government in this world shall be fully accomplished. What regions these bodies visit, when they pass beyond the limits of our view; upon what errands they are sent; when they again revisit the central parts of our system; what is the difference in their physical constitution, from that of the sun and planets; and what important ends they are destined to accomplish in the economy of the universe; are inquiries which naturally arise in the mind, but which surpass the limited powers of the human understanding at present to determine. Of this, however, we may rest assured, that they were not created in vain, that they subserve purposes worthy of the infinite Creator; and that, wherever he has exerted his power, there also he manifests his wisdom and beneficence.^*

Such is a general outline of the leading facts connected with that system to which our earth belongs. Though the energies of Divine Power had never been exerted beyond the limits of this system, it would remain an eternal monument of the Wisdom and Omnipotence of its Author. Independently of the Sun, which is a vast universe in itself, and of the numerous comets which are continually traversing its distant regions, it contains a mass of material existence, arranged in the most beautiful order, two thousand five hundred times larger than our globe. From late observations. there is the strongest reason to conclude that the sun, along with all this vast assemblage of bodies, is carried through the regions of the universe toward some distant point of space, or around some wide circumference, at the rate of more than sixty thousand miles an hour; and if so, it is highly probable, if not absolutely certain, that we shall never again occupy that portion of absolute space through which we are this moment passing during all the succeeding ages of eternity.

When this idea is taken into consideration, it gives a striking emphasis to such sublime declarations of the Sacred Volume as these:—“All nations before him are as nothing—He sitteth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are as grasshoppers—The nations are as the drop of a bucket—All the inhabitants of the world are reputed as nothing in his sight; and he doth according to his will in the armies of heaven and among the inhabitants of the earth—Thou hast made heaven and the heaven of heavens, with all their hosts; and thou preservest them all; and the host of heaven worshipeth thee—When I consider thy heavens, what is man that thou art mindful of him!” If the race of Adam were the principal intelligences in the universe of God, such passages would be stripped of all their sublimity, would degenerate into mere hyperboles, and be almost without meaning. If man were the only rational being who inhabited the material world, as some arrogantly imagine, it would be no wonder at all that God should be “mindful of him,” nor could “all the inhabitants of this world,” with any propriety, be compared to “a drop of a bucket,” and be “reputed as nothing in his sight.”—Such declarations would be contrary to fact, if this supposition were admitted; for it assumes that man holds the principal station in the visible universe. The expressions—“The heavens, the heaven of heavens,” and “the host of heaven worshiping God,” would also, on this supposition, degenerate into something approaching to mere inanity. These expressions, if they signify anything that is worthy of an Inspired Teacher to communicate, evidently imply that the universe is vast and extensive, beyond the range of human comprehension—that it is peopled with myriads of inhabitants—that these inhabitants are possessed of intellectual natures, capable of appreciating the perfections of their Creator—and, that they pay him a tribute of rational adoration: “The host of heaven worshipeth thee.” So that the language of Scripture is not only consistent with the doctrines of a plurality of worlds, but evidently supposes their existence to all the extent to which the discoveries of modern science can carry us. However vast the universe now appears—however numerous the worlds, and systems of worlds, which may exist within its boundless range—the language of Scripture is sufficiently comprehensive and sublime, to express all the emotions which naturally arise in the mind when contemplating its structure; a characteristic which will apply to no other book, or pretended revelation. And this consideration shows not only the harmony which subsists between the discoveries of Revelation and the discoveries of Science, but also forms, by itself, a strong presumptive evidence that rhe records of the Bible are authentic and divine.^*

Vast as the Solar System we have now been contemplating may appear, it is but a mere point in the map of creation. To a spectator placed in one of the stars of the seventh magnitude, not only the glories of this world, and the more resplendent scenes of the planet Saturn, but even the sun himself would entirely disappear, as if he were blotted out of existence. “Were the sun,” says Mr. Addison, “which enlightens this part of the creation, with all the host of the planetary worlds that move about him, utterly extinguished and annihilated, they would not be missed by an eye that could take in the whole compass of nature, more than a grain of sand upon the sea-shore. The space they possess is so exceedingly little in comparison of the whole, that it would scarcely make a blank in creation.”

The Fixed Stars.—When we pass from the planetary system to other regions of creation, we have to traverse, in imagination, a space so immense, that it has hitherto baffled all the efforts of science to determine its extent. In these remote and immeasurable spaces are placed those immense luminous bodies usually denominated the fixed stars. The nearest stars are, on good grounds, concluded to be at least twenty billions of miles distant from our globe–a distance through which light (the swiftest body in nature) could not travel in the space of three years; and which a ball, moving at the rate of 500 miles an hour, would not traverse in four millions, five hundred thousand years, of 750 times the period which has elapsed since the Mosaic creation. But how far they may be placed beyond this distance, no astronomer will pretend to determine. The following consideration will prove, to those unacquainted with the mathematical principles of astronomy, that the stars are placed at an immeasurable distance. When they are viewed through a telescope which magnifies objects a thousand times, they appear no larger than to the naked eye; which circumstance shows, that though we were placed at the thousandth part of the distance from them at which we now are, they would still appear only as so many shining points; for we should still be distant from the nearest of them, twenty thousand millions of miles: or, in other words, were we transported several thousands of millions of miles from the spot we now occupy, though their numbers would appear exceedingly increased, they would appear no larger than they do from our present station; and we behooved to be carried forward thousands of millions of miles farther in a long succession, before their discs appeared to expand into large circles like the moon. Sir W. Herschel viewed the stars with telescopes magnifying from one to two or three thousand times, yet they still appeared only as brilliant points, without any sensible discs or increase of diameter. This circumstance incontestably proves the two following things: 1. That the stars are luminous bodies, which shine by their own native light; otherwise they could not be perceived at such vast distances. 2. That they are bodies of an immense size, not inferior to the sun; and many of them, it is probable, far exceed that luminary in bulk and splendor.^†

For the conveniency of reference to particular objects and regions in the heavens, the stars have been arranged into different groups and constellations. The number of constellations recognized by modern astronomers is about 94; of which 12 are contained in the Zodiac, or that zone in the heavens in which the sun, moon, and planets are seen to perform their real or apparent revolutions; 35 are reckoned North of the zodiac, and 47 to the South, called the Northern and Southern constellations. These constellations are generally depicted on celestial globes and planispheres, as if they were represented by various animals and hieroglyphic objects, which give such exhibitions of the heavens a very grotesque and unnatural appearance. We have therefore given, in the following cut (fig. 23), a representation of the constellation Orion, with the adjacent stars, on a more simple and natural plan, to show the manner in which the celestial constellations might be depicted on globes and planispheres, so as to make them resemble as much as possible their appearance in the heavens. This constellation makes a splendid appearance in the southern parts of the heavens during our winter months. The two large stars near the top toward the left, are Betelguese and Bellatrix; the three equidistant stars, near the middle, are Orion's belt, called in the book of Job, the “bands of Orion.” The large star, near the bottom, on the right, is Rigel, a star of the first magnitude. A white line is drawn around this constellation to define its boundaries, and, in this way the form and limits of all the other constellations might be distinguished.

Fig. 23

The stars, on account of the difference in their apparent magnitudes, have been distributed into several classes or orders. Those which appear largest are called stars of the first magnitude; next to those in luster, stars of the second magnitude, and so on to stars of the sixth magnitude, which are the smallest that can be distinguished by the naked eye. Stars of the seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, &c., magnitudes, which cannot be seen by the naked eye, are distinguished by the name of the telescopic stars. Not more than a thousand stars can be distinguished by the naked eye in the clearest winter night; but by means of the telescope, millions have been discovered.^* And as it is probable, that by far the greater part lie beyond the reach of the best glasses which have been, or ever will be, constructed by man—the real number of the stars may be presumed to be beyond all human calculation or conception, and perhaps beyond the grasp of angelic comprehension.

It appears, from numerous observations, that various changes are occasionally taking place in the regions of the stars. Several stars have appeared for a while in the heavens, and then vanished from the sight. Some stars which were known to the ancients, cannot now be discovered; and stars are now distinctly visible, which were to them unknown. A few stars have gradually increased in brilliancy, while others have been constantly diminishing in luster. Certain stars, to the number of fifteen or upwards, are ascertained to have a periodical increase and decrease of their luster, sometimes appearing like stars of the first or second magnitude, sometimes diminishing to the size of the fourth or fifth magnitude, and sometimes altogether disappearing to the naked eye. The late discoveries respecting double and triple stars are particularly worthy of attention. Some stars, which, to the naked eye, appear single, when examined by good telescopes, are found to consist of two, three, or more stars. In reference to double stars, one of the two is generally considerably smaller than the other, and it is now ascertained that, in many instances, the smaller star has a circular or elliptical motion around the larger. About 6000 double stars have already been detected; and between 40 and 50 of these bodies have been ascertained beyond doubt to form revolving systems. Some of these require 1600, others 1200, and others about 452 years to complete their revolutions; while some others finish their circuits in the short periods of 55, 43, and even 30 years. So that here we have Suns revolving around suns, and systems of worlds revolving around systems of worlds, in various combinations, throughout the tracts of immensity. It also appears that changes are taking place among the Nebulæ—that several nebulæ are formed by the decomposition of larger nebulæ and that many nebulæ of this kind are at present detaching themselves from the nebulæ of the Milky Way. These changes seem to indicate, that mighty movements and vast operations are continually going on in the distant regions of creation, under the superintendence of the Sovereign of the Universe, upon a scale of magnitude and grandeur which overwhelms the human understanding.

To explore more extensively the region of the starry firmament; to mark the changes that are taking place; to ascertain all the changeable stars; to determine the periodical variations of their light; the revolutions of double and triple stars, and the motions and other phenomena peculiar to these great bodies—will furnish employment for future enlightened generations; and will perhaps form a part of the studies and investigations of superior intelligences, in a higher sphere of existence, during an indefinite lapse of ages.

If every one of these immense bodies be a Sun, equal or superior to ours, and encircled with a host of planetary worlds, as we have every reason to conclude to be the case,^* how vast must be the extent of creation! how numerous the worlds and beings which exist within its boundless range! and how great, beyond all human or angelic conception, must be the Power and Intelligence of that glorious Being who called this system from nothing into existence, and continually superintends all its movements! The mind is bewildered and confounded when it attempts to dwell on this subject; it feels the narrow limits of its present faculties; it longs for the powers of a seraph, to enable it to take a more expansive flight into those regions which “eye hath not seen;” and, while destitute of these, and chained down to this obscure corner of creation, it can only exclaim, in the language of inspiration, “Who can by searching find out God?—Great is our Lord, and of great power: his understanding is infinite!—Great and marvelous are thy works, Lord God Almighty!—Who can utter the mighty acts of Jehovah! who can show forth all his praise!”

If, then, such be the effects which the objects of astronomy have a tendency to produce on a devout and enlightened mind—to call in question the propriety of exhibiting such views in religious publications, or in the course of religious instructions, would be an approach to impiety, and an attempt to cover with a vail the most illustrious visible displays of Divine glory.—It forms a striking evidence of the depravity of man, as well as of his want of true taste, and of a discernment of what is excellent, that the grandeur of the nocturnal heavens, and the perfections of Deity they proclaim, are beheld with so much apathy and indifference by the bulk of mankind. Though “the heavens declare the glory of God,” in the most solemn and impressive language, adapted to the comprehension of every kindred and every tribe, yet “a brutish man knoweth not, neither doth a fool understand this.” They can gaze upon these resplendent orbs with as little emotion as the ox that feeds on the grass, or as the horse that drags their carcasses along in their chariots. They have even attempted to ridicule the science of the heavens, to caricature those who have devoted themselves to such studies, and to treat with an indifference, mingled with contempt, the most august productions of Omnipotence. Such persons must be considered as exposing themselves to that Divine denunciation—“Because they regard not the works of Jehovah, neither consider the operations of his hands, he will destroy them, and not build them up.” If the structure of the heavens, and the immensity of worlds and beings which they contain, were intended by the Creator to adumbrate, in some measure, his invisible perfections, and to produce a sublime and awful impression on the minds of all created intelligences,^* it must imply a high degree of disrespect to the Divinity, willfully to overlook these astonishing scenes of Power and Intelligence. It is not a matter of mere taste or caprice, whether or not we direct our thoughts to such subjects, but an imperative duty, to which we are frequently directed in the word of God; the willful neglect of which, where there is an opportunity of attending to it, must subject us to all that is included in the threatening now specified, if there be any meaning in language.

That the great body of professed Christians are absolute strangers to the sublime sentiments which a serious contemplation of the heavens inspires, must be owing, in part, to the minds of Christian parents and teachers not having been directed to such subjects, or to the views they entertain respecting the relation of such contemplations to the objects of religion. In communicating religious instructions in reference to the attributes of God, the heavens are seldom referred to, except in such a vague and indefinite manner as can produce no deep nor vivid impression on the mind; and many pious persons whose views have been confined to a narrow range of objects, have been disposed to declaim against such studies, as if they had a tendency to engender pride and self-conceit, and as if they were even dangerous to the interests of religion and piety. How very different were the feelings and the conduct of the sacred writers! They call upon every one of God's intelligent offspring to “stand still and consider the wondrous works of the Most High;” and describe the profound emotions of piety which the contemplation of them produced on their own minds: “Lift up your eyes on high, and behold! Who hath created these things? The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament showeth his handiwork. When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained; what is man, that thou art mindful of him? and the son of man, that thou visitest him? Thou, even thou, art Lord alone: thou hast made heaven, and the heaven of heavens, with all their host, and thou preservest them all; and the hosts of heaven worship thee. All the gods of the nations are idols; but the Lord made the heavens; honor and majesty are before him. Jehovah hath prepared his throne in the heavens; and his kingdom ruleth over all.—Sing praises unto God, ye kingdoms of the earth, to him that rideth on the heaven of heavens. Ascribe ye power to our God; for his strength is in the heavens. Praise him for his mighty acts, praise him according to his excellent greatness.”—If we would enter with spirit into such elevated strains of piety, we must not content ourselves with a passing and vacant stare at the orbs of heaven, as if they were only so many brilliant studs fixed in the canopy of the sky; but must “consider” them with fixed attention, in all the lights in which revelation and science have exhibited them to our view, if we wish to praise God for his mighty works, and “according to his excellent greatness.” And, for this purpose, the conclusions deduced by those who have devoted themselves to celestial investigations, ought to be presented to the view of the intelligent Christian, that he may be enabled to “speak of the glory of Jehovah's kingdom, and to talk of his power.”