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The Christian Philosopher; or, Science and Religion

Geography

Geography

The next department of knowledge I shall notice is the science of Geography.

The object of this science is, to describe the world we inhabit, in reference to the continents, islands, mountains, oceans, seas, rivers, empires, and kingdoms with which it is diversified, together with the manners, customs, and religion of the different tribes which people its surface.

In order to form an accurate conception of the relative positions of objects on the surface of the earth, and to enter, with intelligence, on the study of this subject, it is requisite, first of all, to have an accurate idea of its figure and magnitude. For a long series of ages, it was supposed, by the bulk of mankind, that the surface of the earth was nearly a plane, indefinitely extended, and bounded on all sides by the sky. Lactantius, and several of the Fathers of the Christian Church, strenuously argued, that the earth was extended infinitely downward, and established upon several foundations. The ancient philosopher Heraclitus is said to have believed, that the earth was of the shape of a skiff or canoe, very much hollowed; and the philosopher Leucippus supposed it to be of the form of a cylinder or a drum. It is only within the period of the last three hundred years that the true figure of the earth has been accurately ascertained. This figure is now found to be that of an oblate spheroid, nearly approaching to the shape of a globe or sphere. To have asserted this opinion several ages ago would have been considered as a heresy in religion, and would have subjected its abettors to the anathemas of the Church, and even to the peril of their lives. Historians inform us, that the learned Spigelius, bishop of Upsal, in Sweden, suffered martyrdom at the stake, in defense of the doctrine of the Antipodes; and we know that, for asserting the motion of the earth, the celebrated philosopher Galileo was immured in a dungeon, and condemned by an assembly of Cardinals, to all the horrors of perpetual imprisonment. The doctrine he maintained, and which is now universally received by every one acquainted with the subject, was declared by those arrogant ecclesiastics to be “a proposition absurd in its very nature, false in philosophy, heretical in religion, and contrary to the Holy Scriptures.” Such are some of the horrible and pernicious consequences which flow from ignorance of the phenomena of nature, and of those laws by which the Almighty governs the universe he has formed; and which prove it to be a Christian duty for every rational being to study the order and economy of the visible world.

That the earth is nearly of a globular figure is proved by the following considerations:—1. When we stand on the sea-shore, while the sea is perfectly calm, we perceive that the surface of the water is not quite plane, but convex or rounded: and if we are on one side of an arm of the sea, as the Frith of Forth, and with our eyes near the water, look toward the opposite coast, we shall plainly see the water elevated between our eyes and the opposite shore, so as to prevent our seeing the land near the edge of the water. The same experiment may be male on any portion of still water, of a mile or two in extent, when its convexity will be perceived by the eye. A little boat, for instance, may be perceived by a man who is any hight above the water, but if he stoops down and lays his eye near the surface, he will find tha the fluid appears to rise, and intercept the view of the boat. 2. If we take our station on the sea shore, and view the ships leaving the coast, in any direction—as they retire from our view, we may perceive the masts and rigging of the vessels when the hulls are out of sight, and, as it were, sunk on the water. On the other hand, when a ship is approaching the shore, the first part of her that is seen is the topmast; as she approaches nearer, the sails become visible, and, last of all, the hull comes gradually into view.* The reason of such appearances obviously is, that the round or convex surface of the water interposes between our eye and the body of the ship, when she has reached a certain distance, while, at the same time, the sails and topmast, from their great elevation, may be still in view. To the same cause it is owing, that the higher the eye is placed, the more extensive is the prospect; and hence it is common for sailors to climb to the top of masts, in order to discover land or ships at a distance. The contrary of all this would take place, if the earth and waters were an extended plane. When a ship came within view, the hull would first make its appearance, being the largest object, next the sails, and last of all the topmast. These considerations, which hold true in all parts of the world, prove to a certainty, that the mass of the ocean is of a globular form; and if the ocean be a portion of a sphere, it follows, that the land also is of the same general figure; for no portion of the earth's surface is elevated above four or five miles above the level of the ocean. 3. That the earth is round from north to south, appears from the following circumstances:—When we travel a considerable distance from north to south, or from south to north, a number of new stars successively appear in the heavens, in the quarter to which we are advancing, and many of those in the opposite quarter gradually disappear, which would not happen if the earth were a plane in that direction. 4. That the earth is round from east to west, appears from actual experiment; for many navigators, by sailing in a westerly direction, have gone quite round it, from east to west; and were it not for the frozen seas, within the polar regions, which interrupt navigation in those directions, it would, long ere now, have been circumnavigated from north to south. 5. All these proofs are confirmed and illustrated by eclipses of the moon, which present an ocular demonstration of the earth's rotundity. An eclipse of the moon is caused by the intervention of the body of the earth between the sun and the moon; in which case, the shadow of the earth falls upon the moon. This shadow is found in all cases, and in every position of the earth, to be of a circular figure; which incontrovertibly proves that the whole mass of land and water, of which the earth is composed, is nearly of a globular form. The mountains and vales which diversify its surface, detract little or nothing from its globular shape; for they bear no more proportion to its whole bulk than a few grains of sand to a common terrestrial globe; the highest mountains on its surface being little more than the two-thousandth part of its diameter. Some of the moun-

* In order to make such observations to advantage, the observer's eye should be, as near as possible, on a level with the sea, and he should use a telescope to enable him to perceive more distinctly the upper parts of the vessel.

page 57 tains
on the surface of the moon are higher than those on the earth, and yet that body appears, both to the naked eye and through telescopes, of a spherical figure.

To some readers, the discovery of the true figure of the earth may appear as a matter of very trivial importance in religion. I hesitate not, however, to affirm, that it constitutes a most important fact in the history of Divine Providence. Had not this discovery been made, it is probable that the vast continent of America might yet have remained undiscovered; for Columbus, who first discovered that new world, had learned, contrary to the general opinion of those times, that the earth was of a spherical figure; and, from the maps then existing, he began to conjecture that the nearest way of sailing to the East Indies would be to sail westward. And although he missed the object of his research he was the means of laying open to view a vast and unknown region of the earth, destined, in due time, to receive from the eastern world the blessings of knowledge, civilization, and religion. On the knowledge of the spherical figure of the earth, the art of navigation in a great measure depends; and all the voyages of discovery which have been made in later years, were undertaken in consequence of the knowledge of this fact. Had mankind remained unacquainted with this discovery, the circumnavigation of the globe would never have been attempted—vast portions of the habitable world would have remained unknown and unexplored—no regular intercourse would have been maintained between the various tribes of the human race, and consequently, the blessings of Divine Revelation could never have been communicated to the greater part of the Gentile world. Beside, the knowledge of the true figure and magnitude of our sublunary world forms the groundwork of all the sublime discoveries which have hitherto been made in the regions of the firmament. For its diameter forms the base-line of those triangles by which the distances and magnitudes of the celestial globes have been determined,* without a knowledge of the extent of which, the important results which have been deduced respecting the system of the universe, could not have been ascertained, and consequently, our views of the grandeur and omnipotence of the Deity, and of the magnificence and extent of his dominions, must have been much more circumscribed than they now are. Such is the intimate connection that subsists between every part of the chain of Divine dispensations, that if any one link had been either broken or dissolved, the state of things, in the moral and intellectual world, would have been very different from what it now is; and the plans of Providence, for accomplishing the renovation and improvement of mankind, would have been either partially or totally frustrated.

With regard to the magnitude of the earth—I have already stated the mode by which we may acquire the most accurate and comprehensive conception of this particular, in the course of the illustrations which were given of the Omnipotence of Deity—(pp. 15–17). It is necessary here only to remark that, according to the latest computations, the diameter of the earth is about 7930 miles, and its circumference 24,912 miles; and consequently, the whole surface of the land and water it contains comprehends an area of 197,552,160 miles. The proportion of land and water on its surface cannot be very accurately ascertained; but it is quite evident, from an inspection of a map of the world, that the water occupies at

* In order that the general reader may understand what is meant by “the diameter of the earth forming the base-line of those triangles by which the distances, etc. of the heavenly bodies are measured,” it may not be unnecessary to state the following explanations.

In any triangle, as A B C, if the length of the side A B be known, and likewise the quantity of the angles at A and B, or the number of degrees or minutes they subtend, be ascertained, we can find the length of the sides A C and B C. If A B represent a horizontal plane, 100 feet in extent, and C B a tower whose hight we wish to determine, and if, with a quadrant, we find the angle at A, or C A B, to be 43 degrees; then by an easy trigonometrical process—Radius: is to the tangent of A, 43°: : as the side A B, 100 feet: is to the hight of the tower C B, which, in this case, will be found to be 93 1/4 feet.

Fig. 13

Fig. 13

It is on this general principle that the distances and magnitudes of the celestial bodies are determined. But, in all cases where we wish to ascertain the dimensions of the different parts of a triangle—one side, at least, must be given, along with two angles, otherwise the length of the different sides of the triangle cannot be determined.—Now, in measuring the distance of a heavenly body, such as the Moon, the diameter or semidiameter of the earth is the known side of the triangle by which such a distance is to be found. In Fig. 14, let E C represent the Earth, M the Moon, and A B
Fig. 14

Fig. 14

a portion of the starry firmament. If a spectator at the earth's surface at E view the moon in the horizon, it will appear in the line E M, among the stars at H. But, if viewed from the center of the earth at C or from the surface at D, it will appear in the line C D M, among the stars at S. The difference of position in which the moon is seen, as viewed from the surface of the earth E, and the center C, is called the moon's horizontal parallax, or the arc S H, which is subtended by the angle S M H, which is equal to the angle E M C. In determining the distance of the moon, therefore, we must first find, by observation, the horizontal parallax, or, in other words, the angle E M C; and the side E C, or the semidiameter of the earth being known to be about 4000 miles in extent, forms the base-line of the triangle E M C, and hence the other sides of the triangle E M and C M, or the distance of the moon from the earth, can be found by an easy calculation.

From what has been now stated it will appear that, were we ignorant of the figure and magnitude of the earth, we could not ascertain the distance of the moon or any other celestial body. In the above explanation I have merely stated the principle on which astronomers proceed in measuring the distances of bodies in the heavens, without descending into details. For a more particular explanation and illustration of this subject, the reader is referred to the author's work entitled “Celestial Scenery,” chap, vii, where the subject is pretty fully and popularly treated.

page 58 least two-thirds of its surface, and of course the land cannot occupy more than one-third. Supposing it to be only one-fourth of the earth's surface, it will contain 49,388,040 square miles, which is considerably more than what is stated in most of our late systems of Geography; in some of which the extent of the land is rated at 39 millions, and in others so low as 30 millions of square miles—the former of which statements being less than one-fifth, and the latter less than one-sixth of the surface of the globe. But it is quite obvious that the extent of the land cannot be less than one-fourth of the area of the globe, and must, therefore, comprehend at least about 50 millions of square miles. And if a large arctic continent, eleven hundred leagues in length, exist around the North Pole, as some French philosophers infer, from Captain Parry's late discoveries*—the quantity of land on the terraqueous globe will be much greater than what has now been stated.

General Divisions of the Earth.—The surface of the earth is divided, from north to south, by two bands of earth, and two of water. The first band of earth is the ancient or Eastern Continent, comprehending Europe, Asia, and Africa; the greatest length of which is found to be in a line beginning on the east point of the northern part of Tartary, and extending from thence to the Cape of Good Hope, which measures about 10,000 miles, in a direction nearly from north-east to south-west; but if measured according to the meridians, or from north to south, it extends only 7500 miles, from the northernmost cape in Lapland to the Cape of Good Hope. This vast body of land contains about 36 millions of square miles, forming nearly one-fifth of the whole surface of the globe. The other band of earth is what is commonly called the New Continent, which comprehends North and South America. Its greatest length lies in a line beginning at the south of the river Plata, passing through the island of Jamaica, and terminating beyond Hudson's Bay; and it measures about 8000 miles. This body of land contains about 14 millions of square miles, or somewhat more than a third of the Old Continent.

It may not be improper here to remark, that the two lines now mentioned, which measure the greatest length of the two continents, divide them into two equal parts, so that an equal portion of land lies on each side of these lines, and that each of the lines has an inclination of about 30 degrees to the equator, but in opposite directions; that of the old continent extending from the north-east to the south-west; and that of the new continent, from the north-west to the south-east; and that they both terminate at the same degree of northern and southern latitude. It may also be noticed, that the old and new continents are almost opposite to each other, and that the old is more extensive to the north of the equator, and the new more extensive to the south. The center of the old continent is in the 17th degree of north latitude, and the center of the new, in the 17th degree of south latitude; so that they seem to be made to counterbalance each other, in order to preserve the equability of the diurnal rotation of the earth. There is also a singular connection between the two continents, namely, that if they were divided into two parts, all four would be surrounded by the sea, were it not for the two small necks of land called the isthmuses of Suez and Panama.

Between the two continents now mentioned lie two immense bands of water, termed the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans, whose greatest length is likewise in a direction from north to south

Beside the two bands of earth to which I have adverted, many extensive portions of land are dispersed through the ocean, which covers the remaining part of the earth's surface; particularly the extensive regions of New Holland, which occupy a space nearly as large as the whole of Europe, and the Aretic continent, which probably exists within the North Polar regions, and which some French writers propose to designate by the name of Boreasia, is, in all probability, of equal extent. There are also the extensive islands of New Guinea, Borneo, Madagascar, Sumatra, Japan, Great Britain, New Zealand, Ceylon, Iceland, Cuba, Java, and thousands of others, of different dimensions, scattered through the Pacific, the Indian, and the Atlantic oceans, and which form a very considerable portion of the habitable regions of the globe.

General Features of the Earth's Surface.—In taking a general survey of the external features of the earth, the most prominent objects that strike the eye, are those huge elevations which rise above the level of its general surface, termed Hills and Mountains. These are distributed in various forms and sizes, through every portion of the continents and islands; and, running into immense chains, form a sort of connecting band to the other portions of the earth's surface. The largest mountains are generally formed into immense chains, which extend, in nearly the same direction, for several hundreds and even thousands of miles. It has been observed, by some philosophers, that the most lofty mountains form two immense ridges or belts, which, with some interruptions, extend around the whole globe in nearly the same direction. One of these ridges lies between the 45th and 55th degrees of north latitude. Beginning on the western shores of France and Spain, it extends eastward, including the Alps and the Pyrenees, in Europe, the Uralian and Altaic mountains, in Asia—extending from thence to the shores of Kamtschatka, and, after a short interruption from the sea, they rise again on the western coast of America, and terminate at Canada, near the eastern shore. It is supposed that the Chain is continued completely round the globe, through the space that is covered by the Atlantic ocean, and that the Azores, and other islands in that direction, are the only summits that are visible, until we come to the British isles. The other ridge runs along the southern hemisphere, between the 20th and 30th degrees of south latitude, of which detached portions are found in the mountains of Tucuman and of Paraguay, in South America; of Monomotapa and Caffraria, in Africa; in New Holland, New Caledonia, the New Hebrides, the Friendly, the Society, and other islands in the Pacific ocean. From these ridges flow a variety of ramifications in both hemispheres, toward the Equator and the Poles, which altogether present a magnificent scenery, which diversifies and enlivens the surface of our globe.

The highest mountains in the world, according to some late accounts published in the “Transactions of the Asiatic Society,” are the Himalaya chain, north of Bengal, on the borders of Thibet. The highest mountain in this ange is stated to be about 27,000 feet, or a little more than five miles in perpendicular hight, and is visible at the distance of 230 miles. Nineteen different mountains in this chain are stated to be above four miles in perpendicular elevation. Next to the

* Bee Monthly Magazine, April, 1823, p. 259.

See Buffon's Natural History, vol. i.

page 59 Himalayas are the Andes, in South America, which extend more than 4000 miles in length, from the province of Quito to the straits of Magellan. The highest summit of the Andes is Chimboracco, which is said to be 20,600 feet, or nearly four miles, above the level of the sea. The highest mountains in Europe are the Alps, which run through Switzerland and the north of Italy,—the Pyrenees, which separate France from Spain, and the Dofrafield, which divide Norway from Sweden. The most elevated ridges in Asia are Mount Taurus, Imaus, Caucasus, Ararat, the Uralian, the Altaian, and the Mountains of Japan,—in Africa, Mount Atlas, and the Mountains of the Moon. Some of the mountains in these ranges are found to contain immense caverns or perforations, of more than two miles in circumference, reaching from their summits to an immeasurable depth in the bowels of the earth. From these dreadful openings are frequently thrown up, to an immense hight, torrents of fire and smoke, rivers of melted metals, clouds of ashes and cinders, and sometimes red-hot stones and enormous rocks, to the distance of several miles, accompanied with thunders, lightnings, darkness, and horrid subterraneous sounds—producing the most terrible devastations through all the surrounding districts. The most noted mountains of this kind in Europe are mount Hecla, in Iceland; Etna, in Sicily; and Vesuvius, near the city of Naples, in Italy. Numbers of volcanoes are also to be found in South America, in Africa, in the islands of the Indian ocean, and in the empire of Japan.*

We who live in Great Britain where the highest mountain is little more than three quarters of a mile in perpendicular elevation, can form no adequate idea of the magnificence and awful sublimity of the mountain scenery in some of the countries now mentioned, especially when the volcano is belching forth its flames with a raging noise, and spreading terror and desolation around its base. From the tops of the lofty ridges of the Andes, the most grand and novel scenes sometimes burst upon the eye of the astonished traveler. He beholds the upper surface of the clouds far below him covering the subjacent plain, and surrounding, like a vast sea, the foot of the mountain; while the place on which he stands appears like an island in the midst of the ocean. He sees the lightnings issuing from the clouds, and hears the noise of the tempest and the thunders rolling far beneath his feet, while all is serene around him, and the blue vault of heaven appears without a cloud. At other times he contemplates the most sublime and extensive prospects—mountains ranged around him, covered with eternal snows, and surrounding, like a vast amphitheater, the plains below—rivers winding from their sources toward the ocean—cataracts dashing headlong over tremendous cliffs—enormous rocks detached from their bases, and rolling down the declivity of the mountains with a noise louder than thunder—frightful precipices impending over his head—unfathomable caverns yawning from below—and the distant volcano sending forth its bellowings, with its top enveloped in fire and smoke. Those who have studied nature on a grand scale have always been struck with admiration and astonishment at the sublime and awful exhibition of wonders which mountainous regions exhibit; and perhaps there is no terrestrial scene which presents, at one view, so many objects of over-powering magnitude and grandeur, and which inspires the mind with so impressive an idea of the power of that Almighty Being, who “weigheth the mountains in scales, and taketh up the isles as a very little thing.”

The Ocean.—The ocean surrounds the earth on all sides, and penetrates into the interior parts of different countries, sometimes by large openings, and frequently by small straits. Could the eye take in this immense sheet of waters at one view, it would appear the most august object under the whole heavens. It occupies a space on the surface of the globe at least three times greater than that which is occupied by the land; comprehending an extent of 148 millions of square miles. Though the ocean, strictly speaking, is but one immense body of waters, extending in different directions, yet different names have been appropriated to different portions of its surface That portion of its waters which rolls between the western coast of America, and the eastern shores of Asia, is called the Pacific ocean; and that portion which separates Europe and Africa from America, the Atlantic ocean. Other portions are termed the Northern, Southern, and Indian oceans. When its waters penetrate into the land, they form what are called gulfs, and mediterranean seas. But without following it through all its windings and divisions, I shall simply state a few general facts.

With regard to the Depth of this body of water, no certain conclusions have yet been formed. Beyond a certain depth, it has hitherto been found unfathomable. We know, in general, that the depth of the sea increases gradually as we leave the shore; but we have reason to believe that this increase of depth continues only to a certain distance. The numerous islands scattered everywhere through the ocean, demonstrate, that the bottom of the waters, so far from uniformly sinking, sometimes rises into lofty mountains. It is highly probable, that the depth of the sea is somewhat in proportion to the elevation of the land; for there is some reason to conclude, that the present bed of the ocean formed the inhabited part of the ancient world, previous to the general Deluge, and that we are now occupying the bed of the former ocean; and if so, its greatest depth will not exceed four or five miles; for there is no mountain that rises higher above the level of the sea. But the sea has never been actually sounded to a greater depth than a mile and 66 feet Along the coast its depth has always been found proportioned to the hight of the shore; where the coast is high and mountainous, the sea that washes it is deep; but where the coast is low, the water is shallow. To calculate the quantity of water it contains, we must therefore suppose a medium depth. If we reckon its average depth at two miles, it will contain 296 millions of cubical miles of water. We shall have a more specific idea of this enormous mass of water, if we consider, that it is sufficient to cover the whole globe, to the hight of more than eight thousand feet; and if this water were reduced to one spherical mass, it would form a globe of more than 800 miles in diameter.

With regard to its Bottom—As the sea covers so great a portion of the globe, we should, no doubt, by exploring its interior recesses, discover a vast number of interesting objects. So far as the bed of the ocean has been explored, it is found to bear a great resemblance to the surface of the dry land; being, like it, full of plains, caverns, rocks, and mountains, some of which are abrupt and almost peroendicular, while others rise with

* A more particular description of the phenomena of these terrific objects will be found in chap. iv, sect. 2.

page 60 a gentle acclivity, and sometimes tower above the water, and form islands. The materials, too, which compose the bottom of the sea are the same which form the bases of the dry land. It also resembles the land in another remarkable particular;—many fresh springs, and even rivers, rise out of it; an instance of which occurs near Goa, on the western coast of Hindostan, and in the Mediterranean sea, not far from Marseilles. The sea sometimes assumes different colors. The materials which compose its bottom cause it to reflect different hues in different places; and its appearance is also affected by the winds and by the sun, while the clouds that pass over it communicate all their varied and fleeting colors. When the sun shines, it is green; when he gleams through a fog, it is yellow; near the poles, it is black; while in the torrid zone, its color is often brown; and, on certain occasions, it assumes a luminous appearance, as if sparkling with fire.

The ocean has three kinds of motions. The first is that undulation which is produced by the wind, and which is entirely confined to its surface. It has been ascertained that this motion can be destroyed, and its surface rendered smooth, by throwing oil upon its waves. The second motion is that continual tendency which the whole water in the sea has toward the west, which is greater near the equator than toward the poles. It begins on the west side of America, where it is moderate; but as the waters advance westward, their motion is accelerated; and, after having traversed the globe, they return, and strike with great violence on the eastern shore of South America. Being stopped by that continent, they rush, with impetuosity, into the Gulf of Mexico, thence they proceed along the coast of North America, until they come to the south side of the great bank of Newfoundland, when they turn off and run down through the Western isles. This motion is most probably owing to the diurnal revolution of the earth on its axis, which is in a direction contrary to the motion of the sea. The third motion of the sea is the tide, which is a regular swell of the ocean every 12 1/2 hours. This motion is now ascertained to be owing to the attractive influence of the moon, and also partly to that of the sun. There is always a flux and reflux at the same time, in two parts of the globe, and these are opposite to each other; so that when our Antipodes have high water, we have the same. When the attractive powers, of the sun and moon act in the same direction, which happens at the time of new and full moon, we have the highest, or spring tides; but when their attraction is opposed to each other, which happens at the quarters, we have the lowest, or neap tides.

Such is the ocean, a most stupendous scene of Omnipotence, which forms the most magnificent feature of the globe we inhabit. When we stand on the sea-shore, and cast our eyes over the expanse of its waters, until the sky and the waves seem to mingle, all that the eye can take in at one survey is but an inconsiderable speck, less than the hundred-thousandth part of the whole of this vast abyss. If every drop of water can be divided into 26 millions of distinct parts, as some philosophers have demonstrated,* what an immense assemblage of watery particles must be contained in the unfathomable caverns of the ocean! Here the powers of calculation are completely set at defiance; and an image of infinity, immensity, and endless duration, is presented to the mind. This mighty expanse of waters is the grand reservoir of Nature, and the source of evaporation, which enriches the earth with fertility and verdure. Every cloud which floats in the atmosphere, and every fountain, and rivulet, and flowing stream, are indebted to this inexhaustible source for those watery treasures which they distribute through every region of the land. In fine, whether we consider the ocean as rearing its tremendous billows in the midst of the tempest, or as stretched out into a smooth expanse—whether we consider its immeasurable extent, its mighty movements, or the innumerable beings which glide through its rolling waves—we cannot but be struck with astonishment at the grandeur of that Omnipotent Being who holds its waters in the “hollow of his hand,” and who has said to its foaming surges, “Hitherto shalt thou come, and no farther; and here shall thy proud waves be stayed.”

Rivers.—The next feature of the earth's surface which may be noticed, is the rivers with which it is indented in every direction. These are exceedingly numerous, and seem to form as essential a part in the constitution of our globe, as the mountains from which they flow, and as the ocean to which they direct their course. It is reckoned, that in the old continent, there are only about 430 rivers, which fall directly into the ocean, or into the Mediterranean and the Black seas; but in the new continent, there are only about 145 rivers known, which fall directly into the sea. In this enumeration, however, only the great rivers are included, such as the Thames, the Danube, the Wolga, and the Rhone. Beside these, there are many thousands of streams of smaller dimensions, which, rising from the mountains, wind in every direction, until they fall into the large rivers, or are carried into the ocean. The largest rivers in Europe are—the Wolga, which, rising in the northern parts of Russia, runs a course of 1700 miles, until it falls into the Caspian sea—the Danube, whose course is 1300 miles, from the mountains in Switzerland to the Black sea—and the Don, which runs a course of 1200 miles. The greatest rivers in Asia are—the Hoanho, in China, whose course is 2400 miles—the Boorhampooter, the Euphrates, and the Ganges. The longest river in Africa is the Nile, the course of which is estimated at 2000 miles. In the continent of America, the rivers appear to be formed on the grandest scale, both as to the length of their course, and the vast body of waters which they pour into the ocean. The Amazon, the largest river in the world, runs a course of above 3000 miles across the continent of South America, until it falls into the Atlantic ocean, where it discharges a body of waters 150 miles in breadth. Next to this is the river St. Lawrence, which is more than 2400 miles from its mouth through the lake of Ontario to the lake Alempigo and the Assiniboins; and the rivers La Plata and Mississippi, each of whose courses is not less than 2000 miles.

When we consider the number and the magnitude of these majestic streams, it is evident, that an enormous mass of water is continually pouring into the ocean from every direction. From observations which have been made on the river Po, which runs through Lombardy, and waters a tract of land 380 miles long and 120 broad, it is found, that it moves at the rate of four miles an hour, is 1000 feet broad and 10 feet in depth, and consequently, supplies the sea with 5068 millions of cubical feet of water in a day, or a cubical mile in 29 days. On the supposition that the quantity of water which the sea receives from the great rivers in all countries, is proportional to the

* The demonstration of this proposition may be seen in Nieuwentyt's Religious Philosopher, vol. iii, p. 852.

page 61 extent and surface of these countries, it will follow. that the quantity of waters carried to the sea by all the other rivers on the globe, is 1083 times greater than that furnished by the Po (supposing the land, as formerly stated, to contain about 49 millions of square miles), and will supply the ocean with 13,630 cubical miles of water in a year. Now reckoning the ocean, as formerly, to contain 296 millions of cubical miles of water, this last number divided by the former, will give a quotient of 21, 716. Hence it appears, that, were the ocean completely drained of its waters, it would require more than twenty thousand years* before its caverns could be again completely filled by all the rivers in the world running into it, at their present rate.

Here two questions will naturally occur—Whence do the rivers receive so constant a supply of water? and, Why has not the ocean long ago overflowed the world, since so prodigious a mass of water is continually flowing into its abyss? This was a difficulty which long puzzled philosophers; but it is now satisfactorily solved, from a consideration of the effects of evaporation. By the heat of the sun, the particles of water are drawn up into the atmosphere, from the surface of the ocean, and float in the air in the form of clouds, or vapor. These vapors are carried, by the winds, over the surface of the land, and are again condensed into water on the tops and the sides of the mountains, which, gliding down into their crevices and caverns, at length break out into springs, a number of which meeting in one common valley, become a river; and many of these united together, at length form such streams as the Tay, the Thames, the Danube, and the Rhine. That evaporation is sufficient to account for this effect, has been demonstrated by many experiments and calculations. It is found, that from the surface of the Mediterranean sea, which contains 762,000 square miles, there are drawn up into the air every day, by evaporation, 5280 millions of tons of water, while the rivers which flow into it yield only 1827 millions of tons in the same time; so that there is raised in vapor from the Mediterranean nearly three times the quantity of water which is poured into it by all its rivers. One-third of this falls into the sea before it reaches the land; another part falls on the low lands, for the nourishment of plants; and the other third part is quite sufficient to supply the sources of all the rivers which run into the sea. This is in full conformity to what was long ago stated by an inspired Naturalist; “All the rivers run into the sea, and yet the sea is not full; unto the place from whence the rivers came, thither do they return again;” but, before they regain their former place they make a circuit over our heads through the regions of the atmosphere.

Such are the varied movements and transformations which are incessantly going on in the rivers, the ocean, and the atmosphere, in order to preserve the balance of nature, and to supply the necessities of the animal and vegetable tribes; all under the agency and direction of Him who “formed the sea and the dry land,” and who has arranged all things in number, weight, and measure, to subserve the purposes of his will.

Rivers serve many important purposes in the economy of our globe. They carry off the redundant waters which fall in rains, or which ooze from the springs, which might otherwise settle into stagnant pools; they supply to the seas the loss of waters occasioned by their daily evaporation; they cool the air, and give it a gentle circulation; they fertilize the countries through which they flow; their waters afford a wholesome drink, and the fishes they contain a delicious food for the nourishment of man; they facilitate commerce, by conveying the productions of nature and art from the inland countries to the sea; they form mechanical powers for driving machinery of different kinds; they enliven and diversify the scenery of the countries through which they pass; and the cataracts which they frequently form among the mountains, present us with scenes the most picturesque and sublime; so that every part of the constitution of nature is rendered subservient both to utility and to pleasure.

Waving the consideration of other particulars, I shall simply state some of the artificial divisions of the earth, and two or three facts respecting its inhabitants.

The Land has generally been divided into four parts, Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, to which has been lately added the division, called Australasia, which comprehends, New Holland, New Guinea, New Zealand, Van Dieman's Land, and several other islands in the Pacific ocean.

Europe comprehends the following countries—Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Russia, Prussia, Germany, Austria, Turkey, Italy, Switzerland, France, Holland, Belgium, or the Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, and Great Britain and Ireland, together with the islands of Sicily, Malta, Candia, Corsica, Sardinia, Majorca, Minorca, Ivica, Zealand, Funen, Gothland, Iceland, and several others of smaller note.

Europe is the smallest of the five grand divisions of the globe. Its greatest extent is from northeast to southwest, namely, from the mouth of the Kara in N. Lat. 680 40″ to the rock of Lisbon in N. Lat. 380 45”, which is computed at 3400 British miles. Its greatest breadth, from Cape Matapan, in the Morea, to the North Cape of Norway, is computed at 2350 miles. Its superficial contents have been computed at 3,650,000 square miles, or 2,336,000,000 English acres, reckoning 640 to the square mile. Its form is singularly broken and varied, being split into many distinct portions, peninsulas, and large islands with extended and winding coasts, which arises chiefly from the number of its inland seas, of which the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and the Black sea, are the most important. Its rivers are numerous, the largest of which are the Rhine, the Rhone, the Wolga, and the Danube. Its mountains do not reach that stupendous hight, nor extend in such unbroken chains, as those of Asia and America. Its highest ranges are the Alps and Pyrenees, the Appennines in Italy, and the Dofrafield, in Norway. Its lakes, though numerous, are comparatively small; those of Ladoga and Onega alone being of any commercial importance. Its soil is distinguished for its valuable productions: Grain of different kinds is raised over its whole surface, except in the extreme north—wines throughout all its southern region; and it is equally productive in hemp, flax, wool and silk. Its northern forests produce some of the finest timber in the world; and the iron of Europe surpasses that of any other country. The cultivation of the soil is carried on with great diligence, and in point of science, skill, and the

* Buffon makes this result to be 812 years, in which he is followed by Goldsmith, and more subsequent writers; but he proceeds on the false assumption, that the ocean covers only half the surface of the globe, and that it contains only 85 millions of square miles, and he estimates the average depth of the ocean to be only 140 yards, or one-fourth of a mile.

page 62 extent of capital employed upon it, and upon every branch of commerce and manufacture, it stands unrivaled among the other countries of the globe. Its commerce is on a very extensive scale, and in manufacturing skill it has surpassed every other country, both in the variety and the cheapness of its productions. European vessels, conveying articles and manufactures of all descriptions, are to be found at the utmost bounds of Asia and America, in the snowy regions of the poles, and crowding the ports of New Holland, Van Dieman's Land, New Zealand, and the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans.

The population of Europe is now reckoned to amount to about 200 millions. Its inhabitants are divided chiefly into three races, the Sclavonic, Teutonic, and Romish races. The Sclavonic consists of about 25 millions of Russians, 10 millions of Poles, and 10 millions in other adjacent countries. The Teutonic race, which occupy the greater part of Scandinavia, the Netherlands, and Great Britain, may be estimated at 50 millions. The Romish race includes the inhabitants of Southern Europe, France, Italy, Spain, etc., and may be estimated at about 80 millions. The Celts in Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and Spain, are the remains of the most ancient inhabitants of Western Europe, and may amount to 6 millions. The Greeks in Europe amount to 2 millions, and the Jews throughout all Europe to about 2 millions. The Tartars, Turks, Hungarians, and Gypsies, which are of Asiatic origin, amount altogether to 6 or 7 millions. Though this division of the earth is least in point of size—being only the one sixteenth part of the terraqueous globe—it is yet by far the greatest as to moral, political, and commercial importance. Its surface is in general more crowded with inhabitants than most other countries (China excepted), more improved by cultivation, more enriched by industry and commerce—embellished with mighty cities, and splendid works of art, and illuminated with the reflections of genius. Here we behold mind asserting its supremacy over matter, and man, the lord of this lower world, pursuing the high destiny originally assigned him “to replenish the earth and subdue it.” In learning, arts, and sciences, Europe has far surpassed every other portion of the globe; and by the invention of Printing, knowledge of every description is now rapidly diffused, and promoting the moral and intellectual improvement of its population.

Asia, the largest and most populous division of the ancient continent, contains the empires of China and Japan, Chinese Tartary, Thibet, Hindostan, or British India, the Birman Empire, Persia, Arabia, Turkey in Asia, Siberia, Independent Tartary, and a variety of territories inhabited by tribes with which we are very imperfectly acquainted; together with the immense islands of Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Ceylon, Segalien, the Philippines, and thousands of others of smaller dimensions. The immense expanse of Asia presents every possible variety of soil and climate, as it extends from the confines of the polar regions to the tropical climes. Its grandest feature is a chain of mountains crossing it from the Mediterranean to the Eastern seas, of which Taurus, Caucasus, and the Himalaya are the portions best known. One leading feature of middle Asia consists in large lakes or inland seas, salt like the ocean, and having no outlets; of which the Caspian, the Sea of Aral, and Baikal, are the largest. it contains many rivers of great magnitude. The Euphrates, the Ganges, the Hoanho, and the Amur, in the length of their course, yield only to the rivers of the New world. This quarter of the globe is reckoned to be 7500 miles in length, from east to west, and about 5000 miles in breadth, from south to north, and contains about 16 millions of square miles, being more than four times larger than Europe. Its inhabitants have been computed by some writers to amount to 580 millions. It was in Asia where the human race was first planted; it became the nursery of the world after the universal deluge, and it was the scene in which the most memorable transactions recorded in the sacred history took place. But its inhabitants are now immersed in Mahometan and Pagan darkness; and the Christian Religion, except in a few insulated spots, is almost unknown among its vast population. It is the richest and most fruitful part of the world, and produces cotton, silks, spices, tea, coffee, gold, silver, pearls, diamonds, and precious stones: but despotism, in its worst forms, reigns, uncontrolled over every part of this immense region.

Africa comprehends the following kingdoms—Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, Egypt, Zaara, Negroland, Guinea, Nubia, Abyssinia, Caffraria, Dahomey, Benin, Congo, Angola, and various other territories. By far the greater part of Africa remains hitherto unexplored, and, consequently, we are possessed of a very slender portion of information respecting the numerous tribes that may inhabit it. This quarter of the world, which once contained several flourishing kingdoms and states, is now reduced to a general state of barbarism. That most abominable traffic, the slave trade, is carried on to an unlimited extent on its western coasts, by a set of European ruffians, whose villanies are a disgrace to human nature. It is to be hoped, this traffic will, ere long, be extirpated by the efforts now making by European nations, and by the plans which are now concerting for promoting the religious, moral, and commercial improvement of this country. The Christian Religion has lately been introduced into its southern regions, in the districts adjacent to the Cape of Good Hope, and the labors of Missionaries of different denominations appear, in numerous instances, to have been crowned with remarkable success.*—A colony of blacks, formerly slaves in America, has lately been established on the western coast, a little to the south of Sierra Leone, which goes by the name of Liberia. All the affairs of this little state are conducted by emancipated negroes, and particular attention is paid to the literary and religious instruction of the colonists. Some of the Newspapers we have seen, published by the settlers in this colony, indicate a considerable degree of talent and information; and there is a prospect that the improvements going forward in Liberia will, ere long, produce a beneficial influence on those tribes who occupy the adjacent territories, and have a tendency to lessen the traffic in slaves. The greatest breadth of Africa is about 4790 miles, and its length from north to south about 5000 miles. Its most striking features are those immense deserts, near its northern parts, which comprise nearly one-third of its surface. The deserts of Zaara are 1500 miles long and eight hundred broad.

America is divided into North and South. It remained unknown to the inhabitants of the Eastern hemisphere until the year 1492, when it was discovered by Columbus, who first landed on Guanahani, or Cat Island, one of the Bahama isles. North America comprehends the following

* See Moffat's interesting work, entitled “Missionary Scenes and Labors in Southern Africa.” 1842.

page 63 countries: The United States, New and Old Mexico, Upper and Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Labrador. South America comprehends the immense districts called Terra Firma, Peru, Guiana, Amazonia, Paraguay, Brazil, Chili, and Patagonia.—Between N. and S. America, lie the islands of Cuba, St. Domingo, Jamaica, and Porto Rico, known by the name of the West Indies. America is bounded on the east by the Atlantic, on the west by the Pacific, and on the north by the Arctic ocean. South America comprises a surface of six and a half millions of square miles, its length being 4500 miles, and its greatest breadth 3200 miles. North America, exclusive of the islands that surround it, contains about nine millions of square miles. It has been divided into five physical regions: 1. The table land of Mexico; 2. The slope lying between the rocky mountains and the Pacific ocean; 3. The great valley of the Mississippi; 4. The eastern declivity of the Alleghany mountains; 5. The great northern plain beyond 500 north latitude, a bleak and barren waste, covered with lakes. Beside these, there are connected with America, the Bahama and Caribbee islands, Newfoundland, Cape Breton, Tobago, Trinidad, Terra del Fuego, etc. America is distinguished by its numerous and extensive lakes, which resemble large inland seas. Its rivers, also, form one of its grand and distinguishing features, being the largest on the globe. It is likewise diversified with lofty and extensive ranges of mountains. When first discovered, it was almost wholly covered with immense forests and thinly peopled with a number of savage tribes. Its mingled population of Aborigines and Europeans is now making rapid advances in knowledge, civilization, and commerce.

The United States, which extend from the 20th to the 50th degree of north latitude, form the greatest and most influential power that exists on this continent, and possess a territory of vast extent—stretching from the great lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, a breadth of about 1600 miles; and from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, a length of 2500 miles, including a surface of 2,300,000 square miles. The population of these States now amounts to about 15 millions—an astonishing number, when we consider that only a little more than 200 years ago these territories were little else than a boundless wilderness, peopled by a few tribes of savages. Were they brought to a cultivated state, they would be sufficient to subsist a population of three or four hundred millions. These States have been peopled from different European nations, particularly from Great Britain and Ireland, and the English language prevails over most of the 26 States. The form of government is that of a republic; and in religion they have adopted the system of cutting off all connection between church and state. Every sectary chooses its own pastor and provides entirely for his support. Literature and science have not yet reached the high elevation they have attained in Europe; but numerous colleges, highly respectable, and literary institutions of various descriptions, have been established,—some of which enjoy a high reputation. The education of the mass of the community forms a prominent object of attention in each state; and the benefits of a good common education are perhaps more generally diffused than in any other country in the world. It is much to be regretted that the system of slavery still prevails in the Southern states, notwithstanding all the remonstrances which have been made against it by the inhabitants of the Northern states, and by other nations. But it is to be hoped that the good sense of the inhabitants of these states will, ere long, excite them to arouse themselves to remove that blot upon their national character by which their institutions have been so long and so deeply disgraced.

Australasia is the name given to a number of large islands occupying a portion of the Indian or Southern Pacific ocean, between the 10th and 45th degrees of south latitude. The chief island in the group is New Holland or Australia, the largest island in the world, being about 2400 miles in length, from east to west, and 1800 from north to south, comprising an area of nearly three millions of square miles. The country is generally flat, with the exception of some mountain-ranges and in many places the inclination is inward, instead of outward toward the sea, so that the mountains and elevated land form a ridge nearly round it. The great Kangaroo is the largest quadruped in this country, and the total absence of such animals as lions, tigers, deer, oxen, horses, bears, is the most striking feature in this region. The native human beings are of the Malay race, and exist in the lowest state of degradation and barbarism.—Three British settlements have been formed in New Holland: 1. New South Wales, which stretches about 1400 miles along its eastern coast, and some hundreds of miles inland.—This is the oldest and most populous of the Australian colonies, and was selected at first for the transportation of convicts, though voluntary emigrants, of late years, have emigrated thither in considerable numbers. It lies at the distance of about 16,000 miles from Great Britain; but the voyage to it is generally accomplished in from 100 to 120 days. Its capital, Sydney, pleasantly situated on a fine bay, called Port Jackson, is now considered as containing a population of 25,000. The whole population of this colony, free and convict, is calculated to be about 110, 000, and it is rapidly increasing. 2. Western Australia, or the Swan-river settlement, which is not so populous, nor does it appear so prosperous as the other settlements. 3. South Australia—which lies on the southern shore. In this colony slavery is not permitted to exist, nor are any convicts allowed to be sent to it from England. Here learning and religion are greatly encouraged, and every mean has been employed by the directors of the South Australian Company to render the settlers, as far as possible, a moral and religious population. The capital is Adelaide, which already contains about 7000 inhabitants, although it is only about five years since the colony was established. Each denomination of Christians supports its own ministers and places of worship; and already about £15,000 have been expended in Adelaide and its vicinity in erecting chapels for Christian worship. Three millions of capital have been invested in this province up to the 1st December, 1841, and 491,984 acres of land have been surveyed. The climate is one of the finest and most salubrious in the world, and it has sometimes been alluded to as “the fair and fertile province of South Australia.” Its winter, which is mild, is in May, June, and July; and its summer in November, December, and January.

Van Dieman's Land is an island of about the size of England, which is separated from New Holland by a channel 90 miles wide, called Bass's Strait. Its shape is nearly that of a parallelogram. It is more hilly and better watered than Australia, and possesses many excellent harbors. Its capital is Hobart-Town, situated on the southern page 64 side of the island, and on the northern shore is Launcetown, the second town, and a busy seat of trade. The population of the island was lately estimated at 25,000, of which about one half were convicts.

New Zealand consists chiefly of two large islands, called the Middle Island, and the North Island, separated by a passage called Cook's Straits, with numerous smaller isles scattered around their shores. They lie in an easterly direction from New. Holland, at a distance of about 1200 miles from that continent, between the 34th and 48th degrees of south latitude, and the 166th and 179th of east longitude. The southern island is about 500 miles long, and nearly 120 broad. The northern is about 400 miles long, and from 5 to 30 broad. Both the islands are estimated to contain 95,000 square miles, of which two-thirds are fit for cultivation. Numbers of fine streams and rivers are scattered through the country, and the bays and harbors are not surpassed either in number or advantages by those of any country in the World. A chain of mountains runs through the whole of the southern and a considerable part of the northern island, some of the tops of which are as high as 14,000 feet above the level of the sea, and present a highly picturesque appearance. All accounts agree that the climate is highly salubrious, and very congenial to European constitutions. The natives of this country were formerly savage and dangerous, but are now partially improved and comparatively harmless in disposition, the missionaries having now acquired a considerable influence over certain tribes. It is universally admitted that they are a robust and healthy looking people; and Captain Cook observes that he never saw a single person among them who appeared to have any bodily complaint, and that their wounds healed with astonishing rapidity. The entire population of this country has been estimated at 158,000, which is at the rate of 5 persons to 3 square miles. The New Zealand Company for colonizing this country was established in May, 1839, and is now employed in carrying its plans into effect. Land has been purchased from the natives, and a considerable number of adventurers have already taken possession of certain districts. A township has been marked out on the shores of Port Nicholson—a fine harbor in the Northern Island about the center of Cook's straits—to be named Wellington, which it is supposed will be the capital of the colony. But apprehensions are entertained that misunderstandings and serious disputes may arise between the settlers and the natives, and that the runaway convicts from Botany Bay, and the southern whalers, will introduce dissension and immorality among the colonists.

New Guinea, next to New Holland, is the largest island of Australasia, being 1400 miles long. It is inhabited by Papuans, with the still ruder race of Haraforas in the interior. This island is said to be one of the finest countries in existence, producing most of the rich fruits of the torrid zone, such as cocoas, nutmegs, cloves, and spices of all kinds, and is everywhere covered with lofty forests. The Papuans are much farther advanced in civilization than the New Hollanders; but no European nation has yet attempted a settlement in this island.—New Britain, New Ireland, and several others, compose a group inhabited by Papuans. The Archipelago, called the Solomon's islands, is inhabited by Papuans, with a mixture of Malays.

Polynesia, or “the many isles,” includes the numerous group of islands with which a considerable portion of the Pacific ocean is diversified They principally lie in an easterly and north-easterly direction from Australasia, within about 30 degrees on both sides of the equator. They are many thousands in number, and are inhabited by savage races, who have generally been found more tractable than the barbarous tribes of other parts of the world. They may be divided into the great groups of the Society, Sandwich, Marquesas, Friendly, Navigators, Caroline, and Marianne islands, with several others. Most of these islands are fruitful and beautiful; some are exceedingly high and romantic, and their climate is reckoned the most delicious on the globe. The Society islands, though not the largest, are the most beautiful, and those in which civilization and polished manners have made the greatest progress. Tahiti, the largest in the group, is one of the brightest gems of the Pacific, as the people of this island were the first to abjure Paganism and to embrace Christianity. It consists of two peninsulas, joined by a narrow isthmus. The one is about 25 miles long and about the same in breadth. The other is about 20 miles in length by 15 in breadth. The religion of the natives, like that of the Tonga, Sandwich, and other islanders, was, until within these 20 or 30 years, idolatry of the most barbarous kind, their manners were extremely licentious, and their dispositions sometimes ferocious and cruel. They were perpetually at war among themselves, and their contests were of the most relentless and cruel character. But, in consequence of the labors of Christian Missionaries, sent out by the London Missionary Society, the majority of the inhabitants of this and the adjacent islands have made an open profession of Christianity. Their places of idolatrous worship have been thrown down, their idol gods destroyed, and an end put to their ferocious and destructive wars. The whole of the Sacred Scriptures has been translated into their native language; they are learning to read the word of God; and, in numerous instances, they have made a wonderful progress in studying its facts and doctrines, and in practicing those duties which it enjoins. The consequence has been that they have made a great improvement in all the arts and accommodations of life. They have built ships, engaged in manufactures of different kinds, reared spacious places of worship, established schools and other seminaries of instruction, erected villages adorned with neat and commodious habitations, and have made astonishing progress in the cultivation of the soil. The moral transformation and improvements which have been effected among the inhabitants of these islands in consequence of the introduction of Christianity—afford a striking and incontestable proof, that there are no tribes on the face of the earth, however barbarous and debased, but may be raised to the dignity of their moral and intellectual natures, were the religion of the Bible once introduced among them, and every other judicious mean employed to promote their progress in knowledge and civilization.

The Sandwich Islands lie about 20 degrees north of the equator, and about 2500 miles north by west of Tahiti. Owhyhee, the largest of the group, is remarkable for the murder of the celebrated Capt. Cook in 1779. It measures 84 miles in length, by 70 in breadth. It abounds with lofty mountains. Mount Koa rises to the hight of 16,000 feet, and Mount Koa to the hight of 18,000 feet, the tops of both being covered with perpetual snow. It also abounds with volcanoes The volcano of Peli, on the flank of Mount Roa, page 65 Is reckoned one of the most striking and awful in any part of the world. The people of the Sandwich islands have, of late years, embraced Christianity, and several missionaries from the United States are now settled in those regions. A considerable part of the population, including the king and his court, attend the schools they have established, and the ordinances of Christian worship. They have formed a small navy, and carry on a profitable trade with foreigners, and the general state of morals is undergoing a great improvement.

The Friendly Islands include the Fejee, and several other detached islands, of which Tongataboo is the largest. They enjoy a remarkably rich soil, which is carefully cultivated by the natives, who rank among the most respectable of the South-Sea islanders, and are remarkable for their neatness and skill in improving and inclosing their lands. Christianity has been lately introduced into some of these islands, chiefly by the persevering labors of the Wesleyan Missionaries. Their population is reckoned at about 100,000—The Navigators’ Islands are among the most important and fertile group yet discovered in Southern Polynesia. The natives are uncommonly tall and stout, and remarkable for a ferocity of character scarcely found in any other part of Polynesia. Here, however, the Christian religion has lately been introduced, and is already producing many interesting and beneficent effects.—The Marquesas are situated north by east from the Society isles, within 90 of the Equator. Their inhabitants are distinguished for their fair complexion and peculiar beauty, but they are fierce and licentious in their character. Christianity has been introduced, but has hitherto produced little effect upon them.—The New Hebrides are a group generally covered with high mountains, some of which contain volcanoes. They are situated about five or six hundred miles west of the Friendly isles, and were first discovered by Quiros in 1606, when they were supposed to be part of a great southern continent which philosophers then imagined to exist. But Cook, in 1774, explored the whole group, and gave them the name of the New Hebrides. The cluster consists of about 17 islands, of which Terra del Espiritu Santo is the largest. At Erromango, one of these islands, the deeply-lamented missionary Williams was treacherously and cruelly murdered by the natives, along with another missionary of the name of Harris, in 1839, when attempting to introduce Christianity among them. This island will be as much distinguished in future ages for this atrocious murder as the island of Owhyhee has been for the murder of Captain Cook. The geographical discoveries of this celebrated circumnavigator prepared the way for most of the missionary operations which have been undertaken in the islands of the Pacific, and of all the laborers in this work of philanthropy, none stands so conspicuous, for unwearied beneficent exertions in this holy cause, and for the important and beneficial effects with which they have been accompanied as the lamented Williams. His “Narrative of Missionary Enterprises in the South-Sea Islands,” deserves to be read by every Christian, by every philosopher and statesman, and by every one who feels a delight in contemplating beneficent actions and romantic incidents.

In regard to the human inhabitants that occupy the different regions now specified—they have been divided by some geographers into the six following classes:—1. The dwarfish inhabitants of the polar regions; as the Laplanders, the Greenlanders, and the Esquimaux. 2. The flat-nose-olive-colored tawny race; as the Tartars, the Chinese, and the Japanese. 3. The blacks of Asia with European features. Of this description are the Hindoos, the Birmans, and the inhabitants of the islands of the Indian ocean. 4. The woolly haired negroes of Africa, distinguished by their black color, their flat noses, and their thick lips. 5. The copper-colored native Americans, distinguished likewise by their black hair, small black eyes, high cheek bones, and flat noses. 6. The sixth variety is the while European nations, as the British, the French, the Italians, and the Germans.

The number of inhabitants which people the earth at one time, may be estimated to amount to at least eight hundred millions; of which 500 millions may be assigned to Asia; 58 millions to Africa; 42 millions to America; and 200 millions to Europe.—With regard to their religion, they may be estimated as follows:—

Pagans, 490,000,000
Mahometans, 100,000,000
Roman Catholics, 100,000,000
Protestants, 55,000,000
Greeks and Arminians, 50,000,000
Jews, 5,000,000
800,000,000

From this estimate it appears that there are nearly 3 Pagans and Mahometans to 1 Christian, and only 1 Protestant to about 14 of all the other denominations. Although all the Roman Catholics, Greeks, and Protestants, were reckoned true Christians, there still remain more than 595 millions of our fellow-men ignorant of the true God, and of his will as revealed in the sacred Scriptures; which shows that a vast field of exertion still lies open to Christian benevolence, before the blessings of civilization, mental improvement, rational liberty, and Christianity, be fully communicated to the Pagan and Mahometan world.

If we suppose that the earth, at an average, has always been as populous as it is now, and that it contains 800 millions of inhabitants, as above stated, and if we reckon 32 years for a generation, at the end of which period the whole human race is renewed; it will follow, that one hundred and forty-six thousand two hundred millions of human beings have existed on the earth since the present system of our globe commenced, reckoning 5846 years from Adam to the present time.* And consequently, if mankind had never died, there would have been nearly 183 times the present number of the earth's inhabitants now in existence. It follows from this statement, that 23 millions of mankind die every year, 2853 every hour, and 47 every minute, and that at least an equal number, during these periods, are emerging from non-existence to the stage of life: so that almost every moment a rational and immortal being is ushered into the world, and another is transported to the invisible state. Whether,

* This calculation proceeds on the supposition, that only 4004 years elapsed between the creation of man and the birth of Christ, according to the Hebrew Chronology. But Dr. Hales, in his late work on Scripture Chronology, has proved almost to a demonstration, that from the Creation to the birth of Christ, are to be reckoned 5411 years; and this computation nearly agrees with the Samaritan and Septuagint Chronology, and with that of Josephus. According to this computation, 7253 years are to be reckoned from the Creation to the present time; and consequently, 320 thousand 500 millions of human beings will have existed since the Creation, which is more than 226 times the number of inhabitants presently existing.

page 66 therefore, we contemplate the world of matter, or the world of mind, we perceive incessant changes and revolutions going on, which are gradually carrying forward the earth and its inhabitants to some important consummation.—If we suppose that before the close of time, as many human beings will be brought into existence, as have already existed during the bypast ages of the world, there will, of course, be found at the general resurrection 292,400,000,000 of mankind. Vast as such an assemblage would be, the whole of the human beings here supposed, allowing six square feet for every individual, could be assembled within the space of about 62,400 square miles, or on a tract of land not much larger than that of England, which contains, according to the most accurate calculation, above 50,000 square miles.

Our world is capable of sustaining a much greater number of inhabitants than has ever yet existed upon it at any one time. And since we are informed in the Sacred oracles that God “created it not in vain, but formed it to be inhabited,” we have reason to believe that, in future ages, when the physical and moral energies of mankind shall be fully exerted, and when peace shall wave her olive-branch over the nations, the earth will be much more populous than it has ever been, and those immense deserts, where ravenous animals now roam undisturbed, will be transformed into scenes of fertility and beauty. If it be admitted that the produce of twelve acres of land is sufficient to maintain a family consisting of six persons, and if we reckon only one-fourth of the surface of the globe capable of cultivation, it can be proved that the earth could afford sustenance for 16,000 millions of inhabitants, or twenty times the number that is presently supposed to exist.—So that we have no reason to fear that the world will be overstocked with inhabitants for many ages to come; or that a period may soon arrive when the increase of population will surpass the means of subsistence, as some of the disciples of Malthus have lately insinuated. To suppose, as some of these gentlemen seem to do, that wars and diseases, poverty and pestilence, are necessary evils, in order to prevent the increase of the human race beyond the means of subsistence which nature can afford—while the immense regions of New Holland, New Guinea, Borneo, and the greater part of Africa and America are almost destitute of inhabitants—is both an insult on the dignity of human nature and a reflection on the wisdom and beneficence of Divine Providence.—The Creator is benevolent and bountiful, and “his tender mercies are over all his works;” but man, by his tyranny, ambition, and selfishness, has counteracted the streams of Divine beneficence, and introduced into the social state poverty, disorder, and misery, with all their attendant train of evils; and it is not before such demoralizing principles be in some measure eradicated, and the principles of Christian benevolence brought into active operation, that the social state of man will be greatly meliorated, and the bounties of Heaven fully enjoyed by the human race. If, in the present deranged state of the social and political world, it be found difficult in any particular country to find sustenance for its inhabitants, emigration is the obvious and natural remedy; and the rapid emigrations which are now taking place to the Cape of Good Hope, New Holland, New Zealand, Van Dieman's Land, and America, are doubtless a part of those arrangements of Providence, by which the Creator will accomplish his designs, in peopling the desolate wastes of our globe, and promoting the progress of knowledge and of the true religion among the scattered tribes of mankind.

With that branch of knowledge to which I have now adverted, every individual of the human race ought to be in some measure acquainted.—For it is unworthy of the dignity of a rational being, to stalk abroad on the surface of the earth, and enjoy the bounty of his Creator, without considering the nature and extent of this sublunary habitation, the variety of august objects it contains, the relation in which he stands to other tribes of intelligent agents, and the wonderful machinery which is in constant operation for supplying his wants, and for producing the revolutions of day and night, spring and autumn, summer and winter.—In a religious point of view, Geography is a science of peculiar interest. For “the salvation of God,” which Christianity unfolds, is destined to be proclaimed in every land, in order that men of all nations and kindreds and tongues may participate in its blessings. But, without exploring every region of the earth, and the numerous islands which are scattered over the surface of the ocean, and opening up a regular intercourse with the different tribes of human beings which dwell upon its surface, we can never carry into effect the purpose of God by “making known his salvation to the ends of the earth.”—As God has ordained, that “all flesh shall see the salvation” he has accomplished, and that human beings shall be the agents for carrying his designs into effect—so we may rest assured, that he has ordained every mean requisite for accomplishing this end; and consequently, that it is his will that men should study the figure and magnitude of the earth, and all those arts by which they may be enabled to traverse and explore the different regions of land and water, which compose the terraqueous globe—and that it is also his will, that every one who feels an interest in the present and eternal happiness of his fellow-men, should make himself acquainted with the result of all the discoveries in this science that have been or may yet been or may yet be in order to stimulate his activity, in conveying to the wretched sons a Adam, wherever they may be found, “the un searchable riches of Christ.”

To the Missionary, and the Directors of Bibl[gap — reason: unclear] and Missionary Societies, a minute and comprehensive knowledge of this science, and of all the facts connected with it, is essentially requisite without which they would often grope in the dark, and spend their money in vain, and “their labor for that which doth not profit.” They must be intimately acquainted with the extensive field of operation which lies before them, and with the physical, the moral, and the political state of the different tribes to which they intend to send the message of salvation; otherwise their exertions will be made at random, and their schemes be conducted without judgment or discrimination. To attempt to direct the movements of Missionary Societies, without an intimate knowledge of this subject, is as foolish and absurd as it would be for a land-surveyor to lay down plans for the improvement of a gentleman's estate, before he had surveyed the premises, and made himself acquainted with the objects upon them, in their various aspects, positions, and bearings. If all those who direct and support the operations of such societies were familiarly acquainted with the different fields for missionary exertions, and with the peculiar state and character of the diversified page 67 tribes of the heathen world, so far as they are known, injudicious schemes might be frustrated before they are carried into effect, and the funds of such institutions preserved from being wasted to no purpose. In this view, it is the duty of every Christian, to mark the progress and the results of the various geographical expeditions, which are now going forward in quest of discoveries, in connection with the moral and political movements which are presently agitating the nations: for every navigator who plows the ocean in search of new islands and continents, and every traveler who explores the interior of unknown countries, should be considered as so many pioneers, sent beforehand, by Divine Providence, to prepare the way for the labors of the missionary, and for the combined exertions of Christian benevolence.*

But even to every private Christian, Geography is an interesting branch of study, without some knowledge of which, his prayers and his Christian sympathies cannot be judiciously and extensively directed. We occasionally hear the ministers of religion, at the commencement of public worship on the first day of the week, imploring the Divine blessing on their brethren throughout the Christian Church, who are commencing the same exercises; and at the close of worship in the afternoon, that the same blessing may seal the instructions which have been delivered in all the churches of the saints; as if all the public religious services of the universal Church were at that moment drawing to a close. This is all very well, so far as it goes: the expression of such benevolent wishes is highly becoming, and congenial to the spirit of Christianity. But a very slight acquaintance with geographical science will teach us, that when we in this country are commencing religious services of the first day of the week, our Christian brethren in the East Indies, who live under a very different meridian, have finished theirs; those in Russia, Poland, Greece, Palestine, and on the banks of the Caspian sea, have performed one-half of their public religious worship and instructions; and those in New Holland and Van Dieman's Land have retired to rest at the close of their Sabbath. On the other hand, our friends in the West India islands, and in America, at the close of our worship, are only about to commence the public instructions of the Christian Sabbath. If, then, it be admitted that our prayers, in certain cases, ought to be specific, to have a reference to the particular cases and relations of certain classes of individuals, there can be no valid reason assigned, why they should not have a reference to the geographical positions of the different portions of the Christian Church, as well as to those who live on or near our own meridian: that, for example, in the beginning of our public devotions, we might implore that the blessing of God may accompany the instructions which have been delivered in the Eastern parts of the world; and that at the close of the worship, that the same agency may direct the exercises of those in the Western hemisphere, who are about to enter on the sacred services of that day. On the same principle we may perceive the absurdity of those “concerts” for praying in different places at the same hour, which were lately proposed, and attempted by a certain portion of the religious world. Even within the limits of Europe, this could not be attempted, with the prospect of Christians joining in devotion at one and the same time; for when it is six o'clock in one part of Europe, it is eight in another, and five o'clock at a third place; much less could such a concert take place throughout Europe, Asia, and America. So that science, and a calm consideration of the nature and relations of things, may teach us to preserve our devotional fervor and zeal within the bounds of reason and propriety; and, at the same time, to direct our reflections and our Christian sympathies, to take a wider range than that to which they are usually confined.

Beside the consideration now suggested, a serious contemplation of the physical objects and movements which this science exhibits, has a tendency to excite pious and reverential emotions. To contemplate this huge globe of land and water, flying with rapidity through the voids of space, conveying its vast population from one region to another, at the rate of fifteen hundred thousand miles in a day, and whirling round its axis at the same time, to produce the constant succession of day and night,—to contemplate the lofty ridges of mountains that stretch around it in every direction; the flaming volcanoes; the roaring cataracts; the numerous rivers, incessantly rolling their watery treasures into the seas; the majestic ocean, and its unfathomable caverns; the vapors rising from its surface, and replenishing the springs and rivers; the avalanche hurling down the mountain's side with a noise like thunder; the luxuriant plains of the torrid zone; the rugged cliffs and icebergs of the polar regions; and thousands of other objects of diversified beauty and sublimity,—has an evident tendency to expand the conceptions of the human mind, to increase its sources of rational enjoyment, and to elevate the

* On this subject the Author feels great pleasure in referring his readers to a small volume, lately published by James Douglas, Esq., of Cavers, entitled, “Hints on Missions,“—a work which deserves the attentive perusal, both of the philosopher, the politician, and the Christian, and particularly of the Directors of Missionary Societies; and which is characterized by a spirit of enlightened philanthropy, and a condensation of thought, which has seldom been equaled in the discussion of such topics. It concentrates, as it were, into a focus, the light of which has been reflected from hundreds of volumes; and the original hints it suggests claim the serious consideration of the superintendents of missionary schemes; without an attention to some of which, the beneficial effects resulting from such undertakings will be few and unimportant.—The following excellent works, recently published on this subject, are warmly recommended to the serious attention of the reader:—1. “The Great Commission,” by Dr. Harris, President of Cheshunt College, Author of “Mammon,” etc.—a prize Essay on Christian Missions, to which the highest prize of 200 guineas was awarded. This work has been generally characterized as “A masterly production, comprehensive in plan, elegant in diction, happy in illustration, cogent and conclusive in reasoning, powerful in appeal, and a book which every Christian in the world ought to read.” 2. “Missions, their authority, scope, and encouragement,” by the Rev. Richard W. Hamilton, Leeds, to which the second prize of the Association alluded to above was adjudged. This work has likewise been characterized by properties somewhat similar to those which have been applied to “The Great Commission,” and the Author has been eulogized as a writer of great power and originality.—3. “The Jubilee of the World,” by the Rev. J. Macfarlane, Minister of Colessie, published at the recommendation of four of the adjudicators of the Missionary Prize Essays—a volume which is justly considered as “the production of a well-disciplined mind, accustomed to think deeply and accurately on any subject to which its energies might be directed—that its tone and temper are decidedly evangelical, its spirit eminently catholic, and its appeals stirring and appropriate.”—4. “Christian Missions to Heathen Nations,” by the Honorable Baptist W. Noel, M. A. Though this volume is not considered equal to Mr. Macfarlane's in point of close argument and logical deduction, yet it has the advantage of it as a practical treatise on missionary work, and evinces a minute acquaintance with the whole scene of missionary labors, which, in this respect, is considered by some as superior to any of the other essays. Were these works carefully perused by the great mass of the Christian world, their spirit imbibed, and their practical suggestions carried into effect, the world would, ere long, be regenerated, and the dawn of the Millennial era would soon make its appearance

page 68 affections to that All-powerful Being who gave birth to all the sublimities of Nature, and who incessantly superintends all its movements.

In fine, from the numerous moral facts which Geography unfolds, we learn the vast depth and extent of that moral degradation into which the human race has fallen—the ferocious tempers, and immoral practices, which are displayed in the regions of Pagan idolatry—the horrid cruelties, and vile abominations, that are daily perpetrated under the sanction of what is termed Religion—the wide extent of population over which the prince of darkness sways his scepter—the difficulties which require to be surmounted, before “the Gospel of salvation” can extend its full influence throughout the Pagan world—and the vast energies which are requisite to accomplish this glorious event. All these portions of information are calculated to confirm and illustrate the scriptural doctrine of the universal depravity of man—to exercise the faith of the Christian on the promises of Jehovah, in reference to the conversion of the benighted nations—to arouse his sympathies toward his degraded brethren of mankind, to excite his intercession in their behalf, and to direct his benevolence and activity, in devising and executing schemes for enlightening the people who are sitting “in darkness, and in the shadow of death.”