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The Material Culture of the Cook Islands (Aitutaki)

2.—Nets Of Twisted Cord

2.—Nets Of Twisted Cord.

The cord for making nets was prepared from the bast of trees, such as the oronga, hau, papako, and paper mulberry. Of these, the oronga was the best. Sinnet cord was also used.

Scoop nets, short set nets, and long seine nets were made. In all, the technique of the mesh was the same. The people of Aitutaki are proud of their net-making. They maintain that their method is superior to that of Europeans, in that they do not cut the cord into lengths to wind on a netting needle. A dispassionate study of their technique shows that their contention is fully justified. It is only in material that the native method has altered. European cord is bought but all the variety of nets are made entirely by their own technique, and ready-made European nets are not bought.

Technique of Net-Making, ta kupenga.

A net is a kupenga, and the process of netting ta kupenga. A netting needle is not used.

page 281

Mesh gauges, kauta, were made of iron wood, and were of different widths for different sizes of mesh.

The cord was wound into very large balls. For commencing a net, a smaller ball was wound on the continuous cord from a large ball. The commencing meshes are set up on a suspensory cord stretched horizontally between two supports. For smaller nets the suspensory cord may be looped over the two great toes. See Fig. 242.

To set up the first row of meshes an assistant is required. The smaller ball of cord must contain a sufficient length to form the upper half of each mesh in the first row. The netting cord is passed over the suspensory cord (S S in Fig. 237), the part A being towards the smaller ball held by the assistant, and B towards the large ball. Whilst the assistant holds the cord taut, the netter places the net gauge, G, across the cord B, at about its own width below the suspensory cord, Fig. 237 (1).

Figure 237.Technique of the Net Mesh.

Figure 237.
Technique of the Net Mesh.

The cord B is brought up over the gauge and a loop of it, X, taken under the suspensory cord SS, and over the cord A, Fig 237 (2). The loop X is drawn completely over A, which is pulled down in a loop on to the upper edge of the gauge the assistant yielding just enough to allow this to be done, and all the while keeping A taut, Fig. 237 (3). The loop X is drawn out sufficiently to admit the passage of the large ball at the end of the cord B. The right hand page 282is passed up through the loop X and turned over to the right, so that the left side of the loop X crosses over to form the right side, Fig 237 (4). This last movement has turned the fingers downwards. They simply grasp the ball B and bring it up through the crossed loop X, as in Fig. 237 (5). The cord B is drawn taut and the loop X closed, Fig. 237 (6).

The above movements form the first part of the netting knot. The left hand holds the gauge with the forefinger behind and the thumb over the crossing of the loops to the front of the upper edge of the gauge. A loop of B is pulled upwards under the cord A, when the first part of the knot is somewhat simplified, Fig. 238 (1). The loop of B which is marked Y is pulled down over the loop made by A, Fig. 238 (2). The first part of the netting knot on the left of the figure is seen to have resolved itself into a simple half-hitch.

Figure 238.Netting Knot, second part.

Figure 238.
Netting Knot, second part.

The loop Y is drawn out to admit of the passage of the large ball on B and thus prepare the way for the second part of the netting knot. The right hand is passed directly down through the loop Y, seizes the large ball. B, and brings it up through the loop, Y, Fig. 238 (3). The cord B is drawn taut and the netting knot completed, Fig. 238 (4). This also completes the first mesh.

For the second mesh the cord B is brought down behind the gauge and doubled up round its lower edge to pass over its anterior surface. This forms the lower part of page 283the mesh, and is similar throughout. The method of bringing down the upper part of the mesh from the cord A differs alternately. Reference to Fig. 237 (1) and (2) shows that the cord A passes in front of the suspensory cord, SS, and that the loop X from B had to pass behind SS in order to loop the cord A over the suspensory cord SS. Now, however, as a result of the last netting knot, the cord A is behind the suspensory cord SS. The loop X must therefore pass in front of SS, Fig. 239 (1).

Figure 239.Formation of second mesh.

Figure 239.
Formation of second mesh.

The loop X is passed over A above the suspensory cord SS and pulls A down on the front of SS as far as the upper edge of the mesh gauge to form the upper half of the mesh, Fig 239 (2). From here the procedure of tying the knot is exactly the same as shown in the two previous figures. The loop X is in the same position as in Fig. 237 (3).

When the second mesh is knotted the cord A is in front of the suspensory cord SS, so the loop X for the third mesh must pass behind the suspensory cord as in the case of the first mesh, Fig. 240.

Figure 240.Commencement of third mesh.

Figure 240.
Commencement of third mesh.

The completion of the third mesh will leave the cord A behind the suspensory cord. Thus the pulling down loop X passes alternately on the opposite side of the suspensory page 284cord to that on which the cord A passes. Always the end of the loop X passes over the front of the cord A before pulling it down to the mesh gauge.

The meshes are counted along the suspensory cord until the required number is reached. For the hand nets the number may be sixty or more. The meshes (mata) are counted in twenties. Thus sixty meshes in a row is termed mata toru. This literally means three meshes, but idiomatically means three twenties. Similarly mata rima means five twenties, a hundred meshes to a row.

When the sixty meshes are set up on the supporting cord, the assistant and the cord A, with its smaller ball, are no longer required. The cord A is cut off at the sixtieth knot. The netter can only work from left to right. To commence the second row of meshes, he either twists the suspensory cord to place the last mesh on the left, or works back on the other side of the suspensory cord.

The mesh gauge is placed in position so that the upper edge corresponds with the lower point of the last loop, 60. The netting cord, B, is brought round the back of the gauge, up over the bottom edge, and a loop X passed through the last mesh, Fig. 241. The loop X is enlarged to admit the
Figure 241. Commencement of second row of meshes

Figure 241.
Commencement of second row of meshes

passage of the ball B and the netting knot made as already described. From now on the procedure is simple, as the upper part of the meshes, which had to be formed by pulling down a loop from A, is already formed by the lower loops of the meshes in the row above.
A second row of 60 is made and the work again turned. The third row is commenced from the left, as in the case of the second. Thus the succeeding rows are added until the required depth of the net is reached. See Fig. 242, page 285
Figure 242. Making net with gauge but no netting needle.

Figure 242.
Making net with gauge but no netting needle.

where the stage in tying the knot is that shown in Fig. 237 (4).

Shaping the net. Bag nets are usually shaped so that the bottom is a little narrower than the top. This result was obtained by adhering to the same number of meshes throughout in each row, but reducing the size of the meshes by using smaller mesh gauges. The method of introducing extra meshes to increase the width of the rows was not used.

Joining the cord. From the large size of the balls of cord used, the joining on of fresh cords was considerably fewer than in English nets. The commencement of a fresh ball was joined at the last knot of the shortening cord, Fig. 243. Here B represents the end of the old cord. Before
Figure 243. Joining new cord in netting.

Figure 243.
Joining new cord in netting.

page 286 the second part of the netting knot is drawn taut the end of the new cord, A, is pushed up between the two parts of the knot, as in the Fig. 243A. The end B is pulled taut, and then knotted with a simple overhand to prevent its slipping back. The end A is then knotted with an overhand knot and pulled down.
Joining the ends, kapiti. In making a bag net, the ends have to be joined together when the net has been made deep enough. The two ends are brought together as in Fig. 244. From the figure, it is obvious that the netting knot
Figure 244. Joining the ends of a bag net.

Figure 244.
Joining the ends of a bag net.

on one side is opposite the unknotted side of a mesh on the other. The knotting cord B has finished on the last knot, X. It is looped to the same level as the loop of the last row of meshes and then tied to the side of the opposite mesh at Y. From there it re-crosses to the next mesh at Z, and so continues upwards from side to side along the course indicated by the dotted line. It finally ends at the first knot, A, and thus closes the two ends, after adding a vertical row of full-sized meshes.
Closing the bottom. The closure of the bottom is somewhat similar to that of the ends, Fig. 245. Here, for the sake of space, the net is shown with only 16 meshes, instead
Figure 245. Closing the bottom of a bag net.

Figure 245.
Closing the bottom of a bag net.

page 287 of 60 or more. Commencing on the left, a cord is tied to the free loop of a mesh, 1, and then tied to the free loop of the next mesh on the right, 2. From there it goes alternately from side to side, as shown by the dotted line, each knot completing a full-sized mesh. It finishes on the mesh 9 by completely closing the bottom. It will be seen that the first mesh made, A, and the last, Z, are three-sided.

Seine net. For a seine net, ahoroa, the meshes for the full depth at one end are set up. The netter keeps adding rows of the same number of meshes until the full length is reached, Fig. 246.

Figure 246.Making seine net.

Figure 246.
Making seine net.

Kinds of Net.

Nets made with the foregoing technique may be divided into hand or scoop nets, set nets, and seine nets.

Hand or scoop nets. Hand nets consist of three types —the huata, hopai, and ngake.

(1.)The huata or flying-fish net is composed of a handle, frame, cross-bar, and net, Fig. 247. In the type net examined the dimensions are given with the various parts.

The handle, kakau, consisted of a pole of hau, 11ft. 6in. long and on the average about 4in. in circumference.

The frame, tutu, for supporting the net, consisted of two iron-wood rods varying from 1½ to 2 inches in circumference. They were lashed at their thicker ends to either page 288
Figure 247. The huata, or flying-fish net.

Figure 247.
The huata, or flying-fish net.

side of the handle about 9 inches from one end, Fig. 248. The other ends of the rods were crossed and lashed together to form the point of the frame, which was called the katatai.
Figure 248. Framework of huata net.

Figure 248.
Framework of huata net.

aa—kakau; bb—tutu; c—katatai; d—pukei.

The cross-bar, pukei, was made of iron-wood, 1 foot in length. At its middle point it was lashed to the end of the handle that projected into the frame. The ends were grooved to fit against the frame on either side to which they were lashed. The cross-bar acted as a spreader, and kept the frame in oval shape. The widest part of the frame (inside measurement) was about 11 inches from the cross-bar,
Figure 249. Attachment of huata net to frame.

Figure 249.
Attachment of huata net to frame.

page 289 where it was 1 foot 4 inches. The length from the cross-bar to the point was 2 feet 9 inches.

The net, kupenga, was a mata rima, and hence contained one hundred meshes round the circumference. It was a bag net joined at the ends and bottom, as described. The circumferential meshes were attached to the frame by a continuous cord passing through the meshes, and looped round the frame every here and there with a half-hitch, Fig. 249.

In a Mauke Island net presented to the Auckland Museum by Mr. Drury Lowe, the frame pieces were made of heart of iron-wood, which had been scraped down. The cross-piece, made of tiare maori wood, was 14½ inches in length. The handle of tou was originally 13 feet long, but a couple of feet had been cut off. The widest part of the frame was 2 feet 1 inch, and the length between the crosspiece and the point, 3 feet 5 inches. The lashings were of sinnet, and altogether formed a fine specimen of the old workmanship. It took a very powerful man to wield this net, hence the cutting off of the end of the handle.

Methods of using the net. The process of torching at night for flying-fish was rama maroro. The act of scooping in the flying-fish was termed tahei, and also painga. The operations took place outside the reef, though on occasions flying-fish may be caught in the lagoon. The man with the net was tangata tahei maroro. He stood in the bow of the canoe. Behind him was the torch-bearer, and in the stern, the wielder of the paddle. Sometimes the canoe was sailed. The torch-bearer was the tangata mou rama, whilst the act of using the lit torch was tu rama. The torch-bearer was also known as the tutu ahi, the person who holds up the fire. Thus we have the reference in a ditty termed a tapatapa.

To ahi koia e te tutu ahi,
Kia marama te painga i te maroro.
Ki te aumihi vaka i—.

Your fire, then, O holder of the fire,
That light he shed on the scooping of flying-fish.
To the bow of the canoe—.

The light dazzles the flying-fish on the surface of the water, and the netter brings his net across them with a lateral sweep.

(2.)The hopai net. This net resembles a large edition of the huata, minus the long handle, Fig. 250. It consists page 290
Figure 250. The hopai net.

Figure 250.
The hopai net.

of a frame, cross-bar, and net. The hopai examined gave the following dimensions, Fig. 251.

The frame, tutu, consisted of two rods of iron-wood, each 9 feet 5 inches long. These were lashed together at both ends. The circumference of the rods at the thick ends was 3¼ inches, and at the tip end, 1¾ inches.

Figure 251. Framework of hopai net.

Figure 251.
Framework of hopai net.

The cross-bar, pukei, was 1 foot 6 inches long, and was lashed to the two sides of the frame about 1 foot 2 inches from the butt lashing, leaving an inside measurement between the sides of 1 foot 3 inches.

The net, kupenga, had a 2 1-10 inch mesh. It was a bag net about 5 feet 8 inches in depth. It was attached to the frame by a special cord run through the marginal meshes and looped round the frame with a double twist about every seven inches, Fig. 252.

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Figure 252. Attachment of hopai net to frame.

Figure 252.
Attachment of hopai net to frame.

Method of holding. The net was worked by hand or set in position. In the former, the right hand grasps the cross-bar, and the elbow is braced against the corner made by the lashing of the butt ends of the frame. In this position a good firm hold is maintained, as shown in Fig. 250.

Methods of using the hopai net. There are three usual methods of using the net—the eki, akaoro ngaika uhu, and in fish weirs.

(a.)Eki. The eki method is used out on the reef at low tide on moonlight nights, when the fish are asleep in the channels. The fisherman is armed with a hopai net and a pole, toko. A suitable spot in a channel near some rocks is chosen. Holding the cross-bar of the net with the right hand, the net is pushed down into position on the bottom, whilst the left hand prods about with the pole, uru uru, in such a manner as to startle the fish into the net. The slack of the net is meanwhile held up at the back with the right hand against the cross-bar, to keep it from becoming entangled in the rocks. When a fish dashes against the net the impact is distinctly felt. The slack is let go and the net brought up.

A chant is used as the net is being placed in position:

Ka haere ka tautai,
Ka haere ka tautai,
Tuki eki eki.
Tuki eki eki.

A-fishing we go.
A-fishing we go.

The eki method is used by a single person. Should ill-luck attend him it is attributed to an accompanying spirit, tupapaku, which frightens away the fish. If the reef sandals are turned with the under part uppermost, the spirit, knowing that he is discovered, goes off ashamed. The luck then changes.

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The fish usually caught are kauvaha, uhu, nanue, apiapi, kovia, and even urua.

(b.)Akaoro ngaika uhu. The uhu is the blue parrot fish; ngaika, a shoal; and akaoro, to drive. Thus the process consists in driving blue parrot fish into a hopai net. Other fish may be netted. Akaoro should probably be spelt haka horo.

In this method several may assist. The man with the net stands in a suitable place in a channel on the reef, ava. Two or more assistants may stand on either side to turn the fish towards the net. Other men work down the channel towards the net, and drive any shoal they may see by throwing stones at it. As the netter sees the fish coming, he crouches down, ka papa ki raro, and sets the hopai net across the line they are coming. He holds up the slack, karu. As the shoal strikes the net, he lets go the slack and lifts the net.

The method is a daylight one, used as the tide is coming in, tai maene. When too deep, operations cease until the tide is going out, tai tuku.

(c.)Pa, fish weirs. The hopai is used with certain types of fish weir, not only to scoop up the imprisoned fish, but also to block the weir after the fish have entered. (See section on Fish Weirs.)
(3.)The ngake net. The ngake is made like the huata, but is much smaller, Fig. 253.
Figure 253.The ngake net.

Figure 253.
The ngake net.

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The handle is shorter, and in the example figured there is no cross-bar. The mesh of the net is also finer, for the purpose of catching small fish. A continuous cord is run through the circumferential meshes and tied at the ends. Another cord is then run in a loose spiral round the frame and the cord through the meshes, Fig. 254.

Figure 254.Attachment of ngake net to frame.

Figure 254.
Attachment of ngake net to frame.

The fish caught are the piper, ihe,. and the muro, which has a longer beak than the piper. The time for using the net is at night, and with a torch.

The net may also be used without a handle, to scoop up koamo when the torau leaf net is drawn. The koamo, which are small, run in shoals. They jump over the back of the torau net to escape. The ngake is placed at the back of the torau to intercept them.

Another small shoal fish caught with this net is the tikoami. The mauru, cocoanut branch, is used to drive the fish towards the net, with which they are simply scooped up.

Figure 255.The tuturua net.

Figure 255.
The tuturua net.

page 294

Set Nets.

Tuturua net. The tuturua is about 7 to 8 feet long, and 6 to 7 feet in depth. It is attached to two poles, hence the name tuturua. A rope runs along the upper and lower borders, but there are no floats or weights, Fig. 255.

It is used in connection with the ta uoa method already mentioned. The uoa is seen in shoals about the white sandy shoals known as kena, near the smaller islands in the lagoon.

The net is carried. When a shoal of fish is seen, the two poles are driven into the sand in an appropriate place. Side lines of cocoanut leaves are run out as a race. The fish are driven into the net, which has a considerable bag.

The correct time to use the net is at full tide. Kaha, kanae, and vete are caught, besides the uoa. All these fish go in shoals. The rakoa and paoa are also caught at medium tides.

The maito collect in shoals in February. After thunder at night, they come in near the beaches. The shoals, called tukia, are driven into the tuturua net, which does not need to wait for full tide.

The ancestor Honokura used the following saying to denote number—

Tini, tini, mano, mano,
Haere te ika i te aria
E maito.

Numbers, numbers, thousands, thousands,
The fish that travels over the shallows
Is the maito.

Tutoko. The tutoko is a process whereby a length of an ordinary seine net is used to block the opening of the Arani fish weir after the fish have entered. (See Fish Weirs.)

Seine Net, aharoa.

The ahoroa, from aho, a line, and roa, long, is a true seine net. The technique of the net has been described.

Ropes called karihi are threaded through the marginal meshes at the upper and lower edges.

Floats, uto or pouto, are attached to the upper rope by a separate continuous cord. They are made from branches of the puka tree, cut off in suitable lengths. These have a pith canal, which is cleared to admit the cord. The page 295cord is tied to the rope, passed through the float, and tied to the rope with a clove hitch. From here it is run along for a little distance, tied again with a clove hitch, and again threaded through a float, Fig. 256. In this way the floats are attached along the length of the top rope.

Figure 256.Attachment of floats, seine net.

Figure 256.
Attachment of floats, seine net.

The sinkers, hara pohatu, are selected from the dark stone known as pohatu maori. The stone is wrapped in the fabric-like material from the base of the cocoanut leaf, kaka, and attached to the lower rope by separate pieces of cord.

The cord is first tied round one end of the folded kaka, then over the middle, with the stone, and lastly over the other end, Fig. 257. Sacking has taken the place of the kaka, but stone is still used.

Figure 257.Attachment of sinker, seine net.

Figure 257.
Attachment of sinker, seine net.

The net is made with the same mesh throughout, and no poles are used at the ends.

The principle in using the seine net in the Aitutaki lagoon is to enclose a shoal of fish. It is rarely drawn up on the beach. In a demonstration by the Amuri folk the net was carried in a row boat, with another and a fleet of canoes in attendance, Fig. 258. When a shoal is seen the net is quickly paid out between the two row boats to form a wide curve. The canoes complete the circle round the fish and drive them towards the net. When within the curve the boats pull round, so as to enclose the fish within the net. Men armed with fish spears follow behind the net to lift it over any rocks that may entangle the bottom rope. The fish are now yarded within the circle of the net, and are speared or scooped up with hopai and ngake nets. With a good catch, the splashing, shouting, and spearing causes page 296
Figure 258. Drawing a seine net.

Figure 258.
Drawing a seine net.

great excitement and fun. Shark and sting-ray are often caught.

A large seine net costs a good deal for cord alone. The village community generally subscribes for the material, and the fish caught are distributed amongst the share-holders.

Ruatapu and the nets. Ruatapu, the ancestor already alluded to as being shared by the Maori, figures in a story concerning the tuturua and ahoroa nets. The incident was acted as a drama by the people of Amuri. Ruatapu and his son, Kirikava, had an argument as to which type of net they should make. Ruatapu decided in favour of the more quickly made tuturua, but Kirikava wanted an ahoroa. They parted in high dudgeon, each to make his own choice. Ruatapu finished his and caught fish whilst his son was still making his seine net. Kirikava asked for a share of fish, but his father told him to go and catch fish with his own net. On Kirikava. completing his net, he caught large fish, such as the urua, shark, and turtle. He in turn refused his father's request for a share, saying, "Go and eat your small manini, whilst I eat my large urna." This act of filial disrespect angered Ruatapu. He left the district to his son and moved on to Kakeu-te-rangi.

The invention of the two nets is attributed to Ruatapu and his son. This is in accordance with the Aitutaki attitude page 297of crediting the invention or introduction of an article to the first ancestor with whom it is mentioned in traditional history. Though the netting knot is old, it is quite possible that Ruatapu introduced the two types of net into Aitutaki.

The turtle net, kupenga tupapa honu. Associated with the seine net is the net for catching turtle. It was made of sinnet, and was from 6 to 8 feet deep. There were no floats or sinkers, but men kept it spread out by resting the feet on the lower rope and pushing up the upper rope with the hands. The net was thus set in the lagoon, and canoes drove the turtle into it.

The meshes were large. The turtle got its head through the mesh, and remained caught by the shell. They were caught near the main shore beach, or near the islands in the lagoon.

At night the net was carried out into the water on the shoulders of men who walked in single file. When the leader struck a rock, he simply called back the height of the rock as a warning to those following. The idiomatic phrases used were:—

  • E tupe, or tupe raro = Up to one foot high.
  • Tupe turi = As high as the knees.
  • Tupe runga = As high as the waist.