The Material Culture of the Cook Islands (Aitutaki)
2.—Nets Of Twisted Cord
2.—Nets Of Twisted Cord.
The cord for making nets was prepared from the bast of trees, such as the oronga, hau, papako, and paper mulberry. Of these, the oronga was the best. Sinnet cord was also used.
Scoop nets, short set nets, and long seine nets were made. In all, the technique of the mesh was the same. The people of Aitutaki are proud of their net-making. They maintain that their method is superior to that of Europeans, in that they do not cut the cord into lengths to wind on a netting needle. A dispassionate study of their technique shows that their contention is fully justified. It is only in material that the native method has altered. European cord is bought but all the variety of nets are made entirely by their own technique, and ready-made European nets are not bought.
Technique of Net-Making, ta kupenga.
A net is a kupenga, and the process of netting ta kupenga. A netting needle is not used.
page 281Mesh gauges, kauta, were made of iron wood, and were of different widths for different sizes of mesh.
The cord was wound into very large balls. For commencing a net, a smaller ball was wound on the continuous cord from a large ball. The commencing meshes are set up on a suspensory cord stretched horizontally between two supports. For smaller nets the suspensory cord may be looped over the two great toes. See Fig. 242.
To set up the first row of meshes an assistant is required. The smaller ball of cord must contain a sufficient length to form the upper half of each mesh in the first row. The netting cord is passed over the suspensory cord (S S in Fig. 237), the part A being towards the smaller ball held by the assistant, and B towards the large ball. Whilst the assistant holds the cord taut, the netter places the net gauge, G, across the cord B, at about its own width below the suspensory cord, Fig. 237 (1).
The cord B is brought up over the gauge and a loop of it, X, taken under the suspensory cord SS, and over the cord A, Fig 237 (2). The loop X is drawn completely over A, which is pulled down in a loop on to the upper edge of the gauge the assistant yielding just enough to allow this to be done, and all the while keeping A taut, Fig. 237 (3). The loop X is drawn out sufficiently to admit the passage of the large ball at the end of the cord B. The right hand page 282is passed up through the loop X and turned over to the right, so that the left side of the loop X crosses over to form the right side, Fig 237 (4). This last movement has turned the fingers downwards. They simply grasp the ball B and bring it up through the crossed loop X, as in Fig. 237 (5). The cord B is drawn taut and the loop X closed, Fig. 237 (6).
The above movements form the first part of the netting knot. The left hand holds the gauge with the forefinger behind and the thumb over the crossing of the loops to the front of the upper edge of the gauge. A loop of B is pulled upwards under the cord A, when the first part of the knot is somewhat simplified, Fig. 238 (1). The loop of B which is marked Y is pulled down over the loop made by A, Fig. 238 (2). The first part of the netting knot on the left of the figure is seen to have resolved itself into a simple half-hitch.
The loop Y is drawn out to admit of the passage of the large ball on B and thus prepare the way for the second part of the netting knot. The right hand is passed directly down through the loop Y, seizes the large ball. B, and brings it up through the loop, Y, Fig. 238 (3). The cord B is drawn taut and the netting knot completed, Fig. 238 (4). This also completes the first mesh.
For the second mesh the cord B is brought down behind the gauge and doubled up round its lower edge to pass over its anterior surface. This forms the lower part of page 283the mesh, and is similar throughout. The method of bringing down the upper part of the mesh from the cord A differs alternately. Reference to Fig. 237 (1) and (2) shows that the cord A passes in front of the suspensory cord, SS, and that the loop X from B had to pass behind SS in order to loop the cord A over the suspensory cord SS. Now, however, as a result of the last netting knot, the cord A is behind the suspensory cord SS. The loop X must therefore pass in front of SS, Fig. 239 (1).
The loop X is passed over A above the suspensory cord SS and pulls A down on the front of SS as far as the upper edge of the mesh gauge to form the upper half of the mesh, Fig 239 (2). From here the procedure of tying the knot is exactly the same as shown in the two previous figures. The loop X is in the same position as in Fig. 237 (3).
When the second mesh is knotted the cord A is in front of the suspensory cord SS, so the loop X for the third mesh must pass behind the suspensory cord as in the case of the first mesh, Fig. 240.
The completion of the third mesh will leave the cord A behind the suspensory cord. Thus the pulling down loop X passes alternately on the opposite side of the suspensory page 284cord to that on which the cord A passes. Always the end of the loop X passes over the front of the cord A before pulling it down to the mesh gauge.
The meshes are counted along the suspensory cord until the required number is reached. For the hand nets the number may be sixty or more. The meshes (mata) are counted in twenties. Thus sixty meshes in a row is termed mata toru. This literally means three meshes, but idiomatically means three twenties. Similarly mata rima means five twenties, a hundred meshes to a row.
When the sixty meshes are set up on the supporting cord, the assistant and the cord A, with its smaller ball, are no longer required. The cord A is cut off at the sixtieth knot. The netter can only work from left to right. To commence the second row of meshes, he either twists the suspensory cord to place the last mesh on the left, or works back on the other side of the suspensory cord.
Shaping the net. Bag nets are usually shaped so that the bottom is a little narrower than the top. This result was obtained by adhering to the same number of meshes throughout in each row, but reducing the size of the meshes by using smaller mesh gauges. The method of introducing extra meshes to increase the width of the rows was not used.
Seine net. For a seine net, ahoroa, the meshes for the full depth at one end are set up. The netter keeps adding rows of the same number of meshes until the full length is reached, Fig. 246.
Kinds of Net.
Nets made with the foregoing technique may be divided into hand or scoop nets, set nets, and seine nets.
Hand or scoop nets. Hand nets consist of three types —the huata, hopai, and ngake.
(1.) | The huata or flying-fish net is composed of a handle, frame, cross-bar, and net, Fig. 247. In the type net examined the dimensions are given with the various parts.
The handle, kakau, consisted of a pole of hau, 11ft. 6in. long and on the average about 4in. in circumference. The frame, tutu, for supporting the net, consisted of two iron-wood rods varying from 1½ to 2 inches in circumference. They were lashed at their thicker ends to either page 288
side of the handle about 9 inches from one end, Fig. 248. The other ends of the rods were crossed and lashed together to form the point of the frame, which was called the katatai.
The cross-bar, pukei, was made of iron-wood, 1 foot in length. At its middle point it was lashed to the end of the handle that projected into the frame. The ends were grooved to fit against the frame on either side to which they were lashed. The cross-bar acted as a spreader, and kept the frame in oval shape. The widest part of the frame (inside measurement) was about 11 inches from the cross-bar,
page 289
where it was 1 foot 4 inches. The length from the cross-bar to the point was 2 feet 9 inches.
The net, kupenga, was a mata rima, and hence contained one hundred meshes round the circumference. It was a bag net joined at the ends and bottom, as described. The circumferential meshes were attached to the frame by a continuous cord passing through the meshes, and looped round the frame every here and there with a half-hitch, Fig. 249. In a Mauke Island net presented to the Auckland Museum by Mr. Drury Lowe, the frame pieces were made of heart of iron-wood, which had been scraped down. The cross-piece, made of tiare maori wood, was 14½ inches in length. The handle of tou was originally 13 feet long, but a couple of feet had been cut off. The widest part of the frame was 2 feet 1 inch, and the length between the crosspiece and the point, 3 feet 5 inches. The lashings were of sinnet, and altogether formed a fine specimen of the old workmanship. It took a very powerful man to wield this net, hence the cutting off of the end of the handle. Methods of using the net. The process of torching at night for flying-fish was rama maroro. The act of scooping in the flying-fish was termed tahei, and also painga. The operations took place outside the reef, though on occasions flying-fish may be caught in the lagoon. The man with the net was tangata tahei maroro. He stood in the bow of the canoe. Behind him was the torch-bearer, and in the stern, the wielder of the paddle. Sometimes the canoe was sailed. The torch-bearer was the tangata mou rama, whilst the act of using the lit torch was tu rama. The torch-bearer was also known as the tutu ahi, the person who holds up the fire. Thus we have the reference in a ditty termed a tapatapa.
The light dazzles the flying-fish on the surface of the water, and the netter brings his net across them with a lateral sweep. |
||||||
(2.) | The hopai net. This net resembles a large edition of the huata, minus the long handle, Fig. 250. It consists
page 290
of a frame, cross-bar, and net. The hopai examined gave the following dimensions, Fig. 251.
The frame, tutu, consisted of two rods of iron-wood, each 9 feet 5 inches long. These were lashed together at both ends. The circumference of the rods at the thick ends was 3¼ inches, and at the tip end, 1¾ inches. The cross-bar, pukei, was 1 foot 6 inches long, and was lashed to the two sides of the frame about 1 foot 2 inches from the butt lashing, leaving an inside measurement between the sides of 1 foot 3 inches. The net, kupenga, had a 2 1-10 inch mesh. It was a bag net about 5 feet 8 inches in depth. It was attached to the frame by a special cord run through the marginal meshes and looped round the frame with a double twist about every seven inches, Fig. 252. page 291Method of holding. The net was worked by hand or set in position. In the former, the right hand grasps the cross-bar, and the elbow is braced against the corner made by the lashing of the butt ends of the frame. In this position a good firm hold is maintained, as shown in Fig. 250. Methods of using the hopai net. There are three usual methods of using the net—the eki, akaoro ngaika uhu, and in fish weirs.
|
||||||
(3.) | The ngake net. The ngake is made like the huata, but is much smaller, Fig. 253. |
The handle is shorter, and in the example figured there is no cross-bar. The mesh of the net is also finer, for the purpose of catching small fish. A continuous cord is run through the circumferential meshes and tied at the ends. Another cord is then run in a loose spiral round the frame and the cord through the meshes, Fig. 254.
The fish caught are the piper, ihe,. and the muro, which has a longer beak than the piper. The time for using the net is at night, and with a torch.
The net may also be used without a handle, to scoop up koamo when the torau leaf net is drawn. The koamo, which are small, run in shoals. They jump over the back of the torau net to escape. The ngake is placed at the back of the torau to intercept them.
Another small shoal fish caught with this net is the tikoami. The mauru, cocoanut branch, is used to drive the fish towards the net, with which they are simply scooped up.
Set Nets.
Tuturua net. The tuturua is about 7 to 8 feet long, and 6 to 7 feet in depth. It is attached to two poles, hence the name tuturua. A rope runs along the upper and lower borders, but there are no floats or weights, Fig. 255.
It is used in connection with the ta uoa method already mentioned. The uoa is seen in shoals about the white sandy shoals known as kena, near the smaller islands in the lagoon.
The net is carried. When a shoal of fish is seen, the two poles are driven into the sand in an appropriate place. Side lines of cocoanut leaves are run out as a race. The fish are driven into the net, which has a considerable bag.
The correct time to use the net is at full tide. Kaha, kanae, and vete are caught, besides the uoa. All these fish go in shoals. The rakoa and paoa are also caught at medium tides.
The maito collect in shoals in February. After thunder at night, they come in near the beaches. The shoals, called tukia, are driven into the tuturua net, which does not need to wait for full tide.
The ancestor Honokura used the following saying to denote number—
Tini, tini, mano, mano,
Haere te ika i te aria
E maito.Numbers, numbers, thousands, thousands,
The fish that travels over the shallows
Is the maito.
Tutoko. The tutoko is a process whereby a length of an ordinary seine net is used to block the opening of the Arani fish weir after the fish have entered. (See Fish Weirs.)
Seine Net, aharoa.
The ahoroa, from aho, a line, and roa, long, is a true seine net. The technique of the net has been described.
Ropes called karihi are threaded through the marginal meshes at the upper and lower edges.
Floats, uto or pouto, are attached to the upper rope by a separate continuous cord. They are made from branches of the puka tree, cut off in suitable lengths. These have a pith canal, which is cleared to admit the cord. The page 295cord is tied to the rope, passed through the float, and tied to the rope with a clove hitch. From here it is run along for a little distance, tied again with a clove hitch, and again threaded through a float, Fig. 256. In this way the floats are attached along the length of the top rope.
The sinkers, hara pohatu, are selected from the dark stone known as pohatu maori. The stone is wrapped in the fabric-like material from the base of the cocoanut leaf, kaka, and attached to the lower rope by separate pieces of cord.
The cord is first tied round one end of the folded kaka, then over the middle, with the stone, and lastly over the other end, Fig. 257. Sacking has taken the place of the kaka, but stone is still used.
The net is made with the same mesh throughout, and no poles are used at the ends.
A large seine net costs a good deal for cord alone. The village community generally subscribes for the material, and the fish caught are distributed amongst the share-holders.
Ruatapu and the nets. Ruatapu, the ancestor already alluded to as being shared by the Maori, figures in a story concerning the tuturua and ahoroa nets. The incident was acted as a drama by the people of Amuri. Ruatapu and his son, Kirikava, had an argument as to which type of net they should make. Ruatapu decided in favour of the more quickly made tuturua, but Kirikava wanted an ahoroa. They parted in high dudgeon, each to make his own choice. Ruatapu finished his and caught fish whilst his son was still making his seine net. Kirikava asked for a share of fish, but his father told him to go and catch fish with his own net. On Kirikava. completing his net, he caught large fish, such as the urua, shark, and turtle. He in turn refused his father's request for a share, saying, "Go and eat your small manini, whilst I eat my large urna." This act of filial disrespect angered Ruatapu. He left the district to his son and moved on to Kakeu-te-rangi.
The invention of the two nets is attributed to Ruatapu and his son. This is in accordance with the Aitutaki attitude page 297of crediting the invention or introduction of an article to the first ancestor with whom it is mentioned in traditional history. Though the netting knot is old, it is quite possible that Ruatapu introduced the two types of net into Aitutaki.
The turtle net, kupenga tupapa honu. Associated with the seine net is the net for catching turtle. It was made of sinnet, and was from 6 to 8 feet deep. There were no floats or sinkers, but men kept it spread out by resting the feet on the lower rope and pushing up the upper rope with the hands. The net was thus set in the lagoon, and canoes drove the turtle into it.
The meshes were large. The turtle got its head through the mesh, and remained caught by the shell. They were caught near the main shore beach, or near the islands in the lagoon.
At night the net was carried out into the water on the shoulders of men who walked in single file. When the leader struck a rock, he simply called back the height of the rock as a warning to those following. The idiomatic phrases used were:—
- E tupe, or tupe raro = Up to one foot high.
- Tupe turi = As high as the knees.
- Tupe runga = As high as the waist.