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Maori Agriculture

The Introduction of European Food Plants

The Introduction of European Food Plants

The introduction by early voyagers of foreign cultivated food products into these isles had a very important effect on Maori life, for it brought about a change in the principal food supply of the natives, the potato took the place of fern roots, the edible starchy matter of the rhizome of Pteris aquilina, as the staff of life. The potato was the most welcome of all introduced food supplies, and was a more useful possession than even the pig. After its acquisition by a few coastal tribes it was soon carried to other clans and peoples dwelling in the interior. These latter now for the first time acquired a food plant that could be grown in high-lying and cold districts, which produced a good return of food supplies, and which at once had a considerable effect on the mode of life of the people. Where, formerly, these folk lived almost entirely on wild products: roots, berries, eels and birds, they could now rely principally on the potato crop. Where the forests had formerly been strictly conserved as providing an important part of the tribal food supply, they now became quite a secondary consideration, and small areas were destroyed year after year in making potato gardens. This factor in forest destruction is specially noticeable in such districts as that of the Tuhoe tribe.

In regard to the period of the introduction of the potato, the first are said to have been left by De Surville in 1769 (See Journal of the Polynesian Society, Vol. III., p. 232), but no reference is made to potatoes in L'Hornes Journal and Monneron's Journal of that voyage, though both state that two pigs, two fowls, wheat, peas and rice were given to the natives. Marion in 1772 planted potatoes in the far north. We read in Roux's Journal of that expedition:—"As the natives are extremely intelligent, we were able to make them understand that the plantations we had made on Marion Island of wheat, maize, potatoes, and various kinds of nuts, might be very useful to them. All these plants had grown very well, although it was winter." In Crozet's account of this voyage we note the following passage:—"I formed a garden on Motuaro Island in which I sowed the seed of all sorts of vegetables, stones and the pips of our fruits, wheat, millet, maize, and in fact every variety of grain which I had brought from the Cape of Good Hope; everything succeeded admirably."

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Nothing is said concerning the potato in the account of Cook's first voyage. In Forster's description of the second voyage we are told that many garden seeds were sown in Queen Charlotte Sound in 1773:—"Captain Cook, who was determined to omit nothing which might tend to the preservation of European garden plants in this country, prepared the soil, sowed seeds, and transplanted the young plants in four or five different parts of this Sound. He had cultivated a spot of ground on the beach of Long Island, another on the Hippah rock, two more on the Motu-aro, and one of considerable extent at the bottom of Ship Cove, where our vessels lay. He chiefly endeavoured to raise such vegetables as have useful and nutritive roots, and among them particularly potatoes, of which we had been able to preserve but few in a state of vegetation. He had likewise sown corn of several sorts, beans, kidney beans, and peas, and devoted the latter part of his stay in great measure to these occupations."

This keen desire to introduce food plants is also noticeable in Crozet's work, when he says: "The garden on Motu-aro Island alone was not sufficient to satisfy my desires; I planted stones and pips wherever I went, in the plains, in the glens, on the slopes, and even on the mountains; I also sowed everywhere a few of the different varieties of grain, and most of the officers did the same. We tried in vain to get the savages to grow some, and explained to them the use of the wheat, of the other elementary grains, and of the quality of the fruits of which we showed them the stones. But they had no more mind for this than brutes."

It seems probably that Crozet was somewhat severe in his remarks as to Maori stupidity. The advantages of wheat growing were certainly not grasped by them at first, on account of their ignorance of grain products, but the potato, so closely resembling their kumara. would certainly be understood, and we have evidence to show that it was much appreciated and desired by natives when introduced. No agricultural people could be utterly stupid and callous in regard to the acquisition of new food bearing plants. We cannot positively state that the potatoes planted by Crozet in 1772 at the Bay of Islands, and by Cook at Queen Charlotte Sound in 1773, were preserved and propagated by the natives, but it seems highly probable that at least those planted at the northern port were so perpetuated. To avoid confusion it may here be noted that Motuaro or Motuara is an islet name at both the above mentioned ports. Forster tells us that Cook took special pains to impress the southern native with the value of the seeds planted:—page 281"Captain Cook, apprehensive lest the natives should find our garden and destroy it, not knowing for what purpose it was intended, conducted Teiratu thither, and showed him every plant in it, especially the potatoes. He expressed a great liking to the last, and seemed to know them very well, evidently because a similar root, the Virginian or sweet potato, is planted in some parts of the Northern Island, from whence he came. The captain parted from him after obtaining the promise that he would not destroy his plantations, but leave everything to grow up and propagate."

In October, 1773, Cook had communication with some natives south of Cape Kidnappers, and gave them 'a piece of red baize, some garden seeds, two young pigs of each sex, and likewise three pairs of fowls.' In November, 1773, Cook again visited Queen Charlotte Sound: —"We found almost all the radishes and turnips shot into seed, the cabbages and carrots very fine, and abundance of onions and parsley in good order; the peas and beans were almost entirely lost, and seemed to have been destroyed by rats. The potatoes were likewise all extirpated; but, from appearances, we guessed this to have been the work of the natives. The thriving state of our European pot herbs gave us a strong and convincing proof of the mildness of the winter in this part of New Zealand, where it seems it had never frozen hard enough to kill these plants, which perish in our winters."

There is no word of Cook having introduced the potato on his first visit to New Zealand. On his second voyage he was at Queen Charlotte Sound in the month of May and June.

When Cook, on his third voyage, reached the Sound in February, 1777, he wrote as follows on gardens sown by his party in 1773: —"Not the least vestige of these now remained. It is probable that they had been all rooted out to make room for buildings, when the village was re-inhabited; for, at all the other gardens then planted by Captain Furneaux, although now wholly over-run with the weeds of the country, we found cabbages, onions, leeks, purslain, radishes, mustard, etc., and a few potatoes. These potatoes, which were first brought from the Cape of Good Hope, had been greatly improved by change of soil; and, with proper cultivation, would be superior to those produced in most other countries. Though the New Zealanders are fond of this root, it was evident that they had not taken the trouble to plant a single one (much less any other of the articles which we had introduced); and if it were not for the difficulty of clearing ground where pototoes had been once planted, there would not have been any now remaining."

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Though onions, leeks, and many small vegetables did not appeal to native tastes, it is by no means assured that these potatoes were not perpetuated. Though no cultivations were seen by Cook on the rugged bush clad shores of Queen Charlotte Sound, yet at that time the kumara was certainly being cultivated in the Nelson and Canterbury districts, and probably also on the alluvial plains of Marlborough, situated near the Sound. Any natives seen at the Sound by Cook must have been acquainted with the arts of agriculture, and the potato would assuredly appeal to them more than any other of the new food plants.

Dr. Thomson's statement that Cook left potatoes with North Island natives during his first voyage is probably an error.

In 1793 Lieut. Governor King, of Norfolk Island, visited the far north, north of the Bay of Islands, where he gave the natives two bushels of maize, one of wheat, two of peas, and a quantity of garden seeds, as also a quantity of tools, spades, hoes, axes, etc., and ten sows and two boars. He does not mention potatoes in his Journal, and it is quite possible that the natives of those parts were already well provided with that tuber from those planted by Marion's party. Dr. Savage, who visited the Bay of Islands in 1805, apparently alludes to the introduced potato in the following remarks: —"The inhabitants of this part of the world are by no means unskilled in arts and manufactures: among the former is their cultivation of the ground. This, it is true, is confined to the growth of one vegetable, but in which they are remarkably successful: I allude to potatoes; and, indeed, I never met with that root of a better quality; they keep remarkably well, and we provided a stock of them sufficient to supply the whole ship's company for several months…

I could not learn when they first became possessed of this invaluable root; they have, however, had some opportunities of changing their seed, which has been of great advantage to them. Cutting is not in practise, the smaller potatoes being always preserved for seed.

Their cultivation has hitherto been attended with considerable disadvantages, owing to the want of proper implements: the only mode of turning the soil being with a wooden spade; but as the soil is light, this impediment is not so great as might be imagined. Their potato inclosures are not planted with European regularity, but they are productive, and do no discredit to their owners. Though the natives are exceedingly fond of this root they eat them but sparingly, on account of their great value in procuring iron by page 283barter from European ships that touch at this part of the coast. The utility of this metal is found to be so great, that they would suffer almost any privation or inconvenience for the possession of it, particularly when wrought into axes, adzes, or small hatchets: the potatoes are consequently preserved with the greatest care against the arrival of a vessel. Their mode of preserving them is upon a platform erected upon a single post, about ten feet in height.

The mode of bringing potatoes to the ships is in small baskets made of the green native flax, and of various sizes, containing from eight to thirty pounds weight… I believe they usually have two crops in the year, and I have not heard that they ever fail from accidental causes. The potato is the only vegetable cultivated by the natives; they have had the seed of several others, but, as they are found ill-calculated for trade, they have been neglected. The diffusion of cabbage seed has been so general over this part that you would suppose it an indigenous plant of the country."

This was evidently the potato, not the kumara, so that it was common at least in the far north as early as 1805, and probably much earlier if the Marion expedition was successful in introducing it 33 years before. Dr. Savage may have seen the potato only at the Bay, but we cannot believe that the cultivation of the kumara and taro had been given up at that date.

In a letter written by Mr. J. Matthews at Kaitaia, and dated April 8, 1837, he states that the potatoes given by Governor King to Huru and Toki were the first introduced. He remarks: —"The potatoes they planted, but did not like them for many years: I suppose they attempted to eat them raw, as they did the corn, which was introduced also by Governor King in person at the North Cape." This letter also states that the pigs introduced by King were all killed by the natives, and left no issue, and adds "There were no pigs in New Zealand before this, so far as we know." At a later date the natives of Kaitaia obtained pigs from the Bay of Islands.

The following remarks have been culled from the account of the voyage of the Venus (1836-39), and refer to the Bay of Islands district: —"On coming away from the pa of Kawakawa, we noticed some natives who were planting pommes de terre. For this purpose they made use of a small piece of straight iron, something like an elongated nail with which they scooped a hole for every one. They then returned the earth on top so that each tuber was surmounted by a little cone something like those made by the moles in their earth-works. This arrangement, observed with great exactitude, gave to the plantations an appearance of very finished culture.

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The natives prepare the lands which they intend to cultivate by burning all the vegetation which hinders them. They seek in preference the lands covered with bracken, to which they give, following the English, the generic name of "fern," and of which the root, which they dig up, serves also for food. It is seldom that they sow the same ground two years following; it is only when they have left it fallow for a year or two that they return to it. In addition to this these lands are exceedingly fertile and give two crops every year. As soon as the potatoes are sown the fields are tapu—a protection that no one dares to infringe. When the time of the harvest has come the entire tribe gathers at the place and carries out the work together, just as they did at the planting season."

It is worthy of note that many natives maintain that certain varieties of the potato (Solatium) were known and cultivated by them, prior to the arrival of Europeans. See Journal of the Polynesian Society, Vol. 3, pp., 144, 237, 238, also Vol. 12, p. 55. We know from the evidence of early voyagers that the Maori was not found in possession of the potato, its cultivation could not have been overlooked, and would be well remembered by such tribes as Tuhoe, who were so situated that they were unable to become an agricultural people. The potato was the greatest boon to these bushmen, but they knew nothing of it in pre-European days. The origin of the above statement probably was as follows: the potato rapidly passed from tribe to tribe, and, in most districts, it was known and cultivated long before European settlers arrived, and even before the advent of European traders. For instance, the Tuhoe tribe sent parties from the Bay of Plenty to Hauraki to obtain European products years before traders reached the Whaka-tane coast. If the potatoes planted in Queen Charlotte Sound by Cook in 1773 were perpetuated, then the tribes of Cooks Straits must have cultivated them for nearly fifty years before the coming of whalers and traders. Little wonder if they claim a pre-European potato.

In the Bay of Plenty district it is a popular belief that the araro and rokoroko varieties of the potato (Solanum) were cultivated there prior to the arrival of Europeans, but old Tutakangahau of Maunga-pohatu stated that they were obtained during the early years of intercourse with Europeans.

The Maori certainly appreciated the potato, and it is at the present time his most favoured food supply. When he found that it not only suited his palate, but was also most prolific and was capable of being cultivated to advantage at all altitudes, and page 285at all places occupied by the native people, he recognised its great superiority over the kumara, which requires very much more care in its cultivation. He soon became an adept in its cultivation and adopted some methods not employed by European settlers. For instance, in order to obtain a very early crop he planted seed tubers as early as June in scrub land or light bush, then felled the bush which was burned in early spring. The fire destroyed the haulm of the plants that had grown up through the felled timber, but a new growth soon followed, whereas exposure to frosts would have spoiled the crop. This method is called whakapara in the Bay of Plenty district, and whakaota at Taupo.

The following notes were contributed by Mr. H. Beattie, of Gore, South Island, in 1919:—"The question of the cultivation of food products by South Island natives prior to the advent of Europeans, is one of considerable interest, as the Maori was, by heredity and training, an agriculturist. The instinct to plant and grow food came with the wanderer across the trackless ocean, but the southern half of the South Island, generally speaking, proved too cold for the semi-tropical products the Maori brought with him. That the aptitude for agriculture still survived centuries of disuse is proved by the avidity with which the southern Maoris acquired and grew potatoes. In Historical Records of New Zealand South, the Sydney Gazette, Sept., 1813, is quoted (p.166) as recording the visit of Williams, a flax-dresser, to the Bluff in 1813. He narrated:—"The natives attend to cultivation of the potato with as much diligence and care as I have ever seen. A field of considerably more than 100 acres presented one well cultivated bed, filled with rising crops of various ages, some of which were ready for digging, while others had been but newly planted. Dried fish and potatoes form their chief support."

Mr. R. Carrick remarks: —"The foregoing is the first mention made of potato culture in Southern New Zealand. It could only have been recently introduced, and it may seem strange it should have been grown on such an extensive scale. We must keep in mind that the natives were acquainted with the cultivation of the kumara, and the one being a duplicate copy of the other, they may have had no great difficulty in adapting themselves to the new species."

At Tuturau, near Mataura Falls, there were splendid crops of potatoes recorded in the years 1844 and 1853, while in 1836 potatoes were growing there, for a native told me that the time when Te Puoho (the northern raider) reached Tuturau was about page 286Christmas of that year, for the early potatoes were ripe, and the raiders from the North Island consumed them. It is wonderful how the agricultural instinct had persisted throughout the generations, and enabled the southern Maori to so quickly adopt European methods of cultivation."

Wheat was not appreciated by the Maori when it was first introduced. They had been accustomed to root crops and the gourd, and seemed to view grain as an undesirable product. A story is told in the far north of natives pulling up wheat in order to see what kind of tubers it produced. This story appears in Appendix III. to Nicholas' Narrative of a Voyage to New Zealand.

As time rolled on the Maori became more accustomed to the peculiarities of European food plants, and so wheat came to be cultivated to a considerable extent, and many mills were built by them under European supervision. Yet a considerable proportion of the grain was sold to European traders, and apparently the Maori never appreciated bread as much as he did his root crop products, as the kumara and potato. In later years he has come to use bread much more than he did. The ten years of disturbed conditions of the 'sixties' seems to have put a stop to wheat growing among the natives. They did not resume wheat growing to any extent after the fighting ceased.

In early days of European occupation the Waiapu natives used to grow a considerable amount of wheat for sale to traders. Much of it was grown on the hill slopes, and the soil was dug by parties of natives using European spades. True to old usages they worked in gangs and preserved the ordered discipline of their forbears when engaged in planting the kumara. The digging was effected by concerted, rhythmic action, and the workers sang as they worked. Threshing was performed with a primitive kind of flail, ere the use of the English flail was adopted. Lengths of the tough and pliant supplejack were employed at first, and, as the people used them, they kept walking round the spread wheat, singing as they worked.