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Deceased.
Since photosynthesis first became a co-ordinated process, evolutionary development in the autotrophic world has come a long way — from the procaryotic blue-green algae to the eucaryotic angiosperms. The organisms making up this colossal range of evolution share many physiological phenomena, one being photosynthesis based on water as a hydrogen donor. This kind of photosynthesis is characterised by the presence of chlorophyll ‘a’ plus some accessory pigment. In the case of the procaryotic blue-green algae the necessary pigment is the phycobilin, phycocyanin: for all photosynthetic eucaryotes the pigment accessory to chlorophyll ‘a’ is another chlorophyll. In fact the photosynthetic eucaryotes can be subdivided in terms of their accessory chlorophyll:
algae — chlorophyll ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’ or 'e’
trachaeophytes — chlorophyll ‘b’only
While other things have changed during evolution in the Tracheophytes, at least one thing is assumed to have remained constant: all members from what we reckon as primitive to what we think of as advanced have chlorophylls ‘a’ and ‘b’.
Being an incredibly old process in an evolutionary sense, photosynthesis (or specific features of it such as the nature of the accessory pigment) can be used as an indicator of basic homology and of possible interrelationships between different groups of plants and even of supposed evolutionary bridges. Since all Tracheophytes possess chlorophylls ‘a’ and ‘b’ and algae are the only possible progenitors of land plants, it is pointless to consider in an ancestral role any algae that do not possess chlorophyll ‘b’ as an accessory photosynthetic pigment. The only plants earlier than the Tracheophytes to have this combination of chlorophylls are the Chlorophyta, Charophyta and the Euglenophyta. We can dismiss the Euglenophyta without further ado because of their curious morphology and storage carbohydrate, as well as their inability to form a multicellular thallus and their lack of both a true plant-type cell wall and sexual reproduction.
Speaking of evolutionary bridges, we must pause a little to air one area of divergent opinion. The title of this article implies that the Green Algae are the cradle of the higher plants. In other words, they are regarded as one end of an evolutionary bridge — with the higher plants being the other. But where in the higher plants did the bridge span to? The Bryophyta are frequently regarded as the most elementary of land plants. Some, however, would doubt this. It is perhaps unfortunate that because of its ubiquity Marchantia is often the only liverwort that elementary botanical textbooks consider in any detail, and many people may have formed the idea that this bryophyte is the most elementary of higher plants. In reality it is quite advanced among the bryophytes because, for example, it has
So maybe when we are thinking of the bryophytes as the place among the land plants to which we connect our evolutionary bridge, we should not keep Marchantia too much in the forefront: rather, we should think of something a little less advanced — e.g. Riccardia, Pellia.
Others would prefer to consider that the bridge should be connected to the simplest known vascular plants — the Psilophytales. Such folk think that at least some of the bryophytes may have been derived from this group, for it is known that even those psilophytalean examples which have survived the rigours of fossilisation were not quite so far removed from the hornworts (Anthocerotales) or maybe even the mosses and liverworts as one might at first suppose. In other words Bryophytes could have been derived from the Psilophytales and as such might be regarded more properly as a red herring in the present conception of the continuum of plant evolution. Pickett-Heaps 11 remarks that ‘many of the bryophytes appear to be reduced forms and perhaps in evolutionary cul-de-sacs’. But even though bryologists and pteridologists cannot give any clear-cut indication of what constituted the first thoroughgoing land plant, they all agree that the ultimate origin of the Tracheophyta seems to lie within the Chlorophyta. He who subscribes to a monophyletic origin of the land plants sees this ‘hypothetical ancestral form (or forms) somewhere between the Chlorophyta and the most primitive known extinct Psilopsida but he knows it to be as yet a “missing link” unsupported by concrete fossil evidence.’ 15
Irrespective of what were in fact the bridging organisms between the Green Algae and the most primitive land plants, it cannot be denied and one must never lose sight of the fact that at no time
Because of these environmental differences it would have been imperative, for instance, that proection against desiccation be acquired by male and female sex organs; that a zygote develop a temporary parasitic association on its gametophyte for nutrients and water—a consequence of parturition unnecessary in a truly aquatic alga, in which a zygote is bathed in its nutrient solution. It would have been necessary for an archegonium while acquiring its protective structure to retain some pathway for sperm penetration. The organisation of such a structure — permitting access to the ovum for sperm while minimising desiccation of the ovum and resulting zygote — would be the evolutionary result of two conflicting demands that must have required some time for a suitable compromise to have been achieved. One cannot say how many features like these were imposed by selection pressure during this transition or how many were resident already in the algal predecessors as sequelae of mutation, minimum selection pressure or maybe just gene drift.
One could not expect all these adaptive features (and maybe more) to have risen spontaneously in response to the progression from water to land; but rather these would have arisen over time. Their ultimate appearance, however, could have been accelerated immeasurably had there already been in the algal genomes latent genes, for instance, controlling biosynthetic pathways which under dry-land conditions would have resulted in the full expression of these characters, e.g. the heavier production of cellulose, the appearance of lignin, the further development of compounds acting as U-V screens. Although these features are not essential in algae, their presence or merely their partial expression would seem propitious in assessing possible algal progenitors.
Considering the Chlorophyta as our general starting level, we face the problem of deciding which order, family or other taxonomic unit contains today organisms whose ancestors may have been among the ‘possibles’ as progenitors of higher plants. Present day Chlorophyta display an incredible range of forms — some of which because of their oddities can be dismissed out-of-hand as likely forerunners of higher plants. We can thus eliminate siphonaceous forms — e.g. the Caulerpales, Codiales, Dasycladales: the multinucleate forms, which would include the Cladophorales, Siphonocladales, Sphaeropleales. Other orders could be excluded for varying reasons: the Zygnematales, because of lack of flagellation of sperms; the Oedogoniales, because of lack of vegetative cell division to give a thallus of indeterminate cell number. So what is left? The Volvocales, Charales, Ulvales, Chaetophorales and Ulotrichales. Having arrived at this point, how do we go about further elimination? What other features might be of some significance in narrowing down the choice? In the past, theories have mainly been based on reproductive similarities and homologies while keeping in the background the uniform pattern of pigments. But the time has come to regard as more appropriate an approach which reflects the concept of the simultaneous transmission of a group of unrelated but critical features from progenitor plants through those following in the evolutionary sequence. Such features would have had to include not just attributes of form and function (such as similarities of pigment. storage products and reproductive features) but these plus features critical to emergence and existence in the completely new medium of dry land — such as similarities in cell-wall materials, biochemical systems such as U-V screen materials, lignin-progenitor synthesis — and others.
We can approach the analytical problem of selecting the progenitor probables' among the Green Algae by grouping under three main headings features which at this point in time one could imagine should have been of evolutionary significance and if present would have been desirable were they found to be congenerous between algae and the first kind of Tracheophytes.
Before analysing the fitness of remaining algal candidates to satisfy the required features set down under these headings, we will pick on one cytological feature which now appears very important and assists us greatly in narrowing down the field of ‘probables’.
Implicit in the existence of the very first primaeval kind of cell must also have been the capacity for cell division and the partition of DNA, although how this latter occurred would be anybody's guess — but this must have happened. Cell division would have to be an incredibly older cellular activity than nuclear division with its attendant spindle formation and complicated sequence of chromosome division and separation, since organised nuclei did not arise till after the appearance of the Blue-Green Algae. By the time the Green Algae appeared, however, cell division had become associated with nuclear division to such an extent that generally one would not occur without the other with the exception of multinucleate and coenocytic types. Nuclear and cell division must have undergone evolutionary change over time. Because of their antiquity maybe we should look at these processes first to see if variations are found; and if they exist, then we could have pointers of inestimable value due to their
At this juncture it might be as well to briefly review what happens during the latter part of mitosis. Mitotic activity encompasses two phenomena:
This latter process is referred to as cytokinesis and of late has been found to show at least one form of variation which appears to be of phylogenetic importance. To appreciate the differences, let us recall the essentials of normal higher plant cytokinesis.
This is the form of cytokinesis found in the higher plants from the Bryophytes upwards. But what is found among the antecedents of the Bryophytes — those Green Algae regarded as being the evolutionary progenitors of the land plants? Electron microscopy has now revealed some variations of cytokinesis which appear to be of phylogenetic importance; and associated with these deviations there appear to be other cytological features which also seem significant.
In some green algae departures have been found from the above sequence of events of cytokinesis. Let us take the case of Ulothrix 2 in which
in the plane of impending cytokinesis.phycoplast to distinguish it from the phragmoplast.
This phycoplast system has been found in the Volvocales and Tetrasporales, Chlorococcales, Oedogoniales and some of the Ulotrichales. Also, in the Oedogoniales the spindle is closed and in the Chlorococcales the nuclear envelope has only polar interruptions at metaphase. In Ulothrix fimbriata the metaphase spindle is surrounded by a vesiculate nuclear envelope, and in Stigeoclonium helveticum (Chaetophorales) it is closed. In the Zygnematales the spindle tends to be open and in most cases examined a septum develops as a furrow which is not associated with microtubules. However, in Spirogyra, a phragmoplast-like proliferation of microtubules and vesicles occurs late in the development of the furrow when its inward growth encounters the longitudinally-oriented microtubules of the persistent interzonal spindle.
In other members of the order Ulotrichales such as Klebsormidium flaccidum and K. subtilissimum, the spindle is fully open.3 There is much spindle elongation during anaphase, the daughter nuclei remain far apart during cytokinesis, there are persistent interzonal spindle microtubules. Cytokinesis is accomplished by a furrow but no microtubules are involved in the development of this furrow, i.e. cytokinesis is by a phragmoplast. In the Charales, mitosis and cytokinesis are similar to those of vascular plants — the mitotic spindle is open and a phragmoplast proliferates from a persistent interzonal spindle.9 The same applies to Stichococcus10 and to Coleochaete7.
So, of the group of orders remaining after the first relegation, we can now eliminate all those algae with a phycoplast. This leaves us with the ‘highly probables’ — the Charales, a couple of members traditionally classified in the Ulotrichales (Klebsormidium and Stichococcus) and one at least of the Chaetophorales (Coleochaete). Although the Zygnematales would still be in the running because they have a kind of phragmoplast,4 11 their lack of flagellation and conjugative method of sexual reproduction appear to disqualify them from further consideration as being on a direct line to higher plants.
Having got so far, how do these evolutionary elite stand up to scrutiny when the other criteria are applied?
Of the remaining contenders mentioned immediately above, those known to possess cellulose are the Charales and Spirogyra. The books do not definitely say whether Klebsormidium or Coleochaete have
One assumes the pigment complement is uniform throughout these algae. It has been tacitly accepted that the carotenes and xanthophylls are also uniform, although the algae in question should be examined to make sure the picture is correct. We have recently found that contrary to what Strain13 has written lutein does not appear to be present in the siphonaceous algae such as Caulerpa, Codium and Bryopsis: its place is taken by the orange pigment siphonein. But at present this order provides the only known exception to the general pattern of carotenes and xanthophylls in the Green Algae.
Starch formation is a characteristic of Green Algae, oil being formed especially in resting stages but sometimes in conjunction with starch.
To date, lignin has not been found in any algal nor fungal group. But percursors of lignin in the form of flavonoid compounds have been found — but only in the Charales. Draparnaldia does not possess these precursor compounds. Although true cellulose is present in cell walls of numerous green algae — as it is in Chara and Nitella, it has been suggested14 that the encrustation of the cell wall by silica in the Charales may prevent the proper orientation of the lignin precursors on the cellulose — it being thought that acylation of the cellulose may be a precursor to lignification. This acylation is absent in other algae, primitive bryophytes and some aquatic angiosperms. The ability to form flavone compounds implies the ability to form at least one or more of the precursors of lignin.14 The compounds found are glycoflavones similar to vicenin and lucenin.
Another feature about glyco-flavones which could have had adaptive value for Charales concerns the property of these compounds to absorb light in the ultra-violet end of the spectrum. Glyco-flavones show high absorption in the ranges of 257 → 270 and 335 → 349 nm.14 Because of this they could act as good U-V screens — an important feature in the progression of plants from an aqueous to a terrestrial habitat. Once the ancestors of terrestrial plants began to emerge from their watery habitat, they would have needed something to screen out the U-V and prevent its damaging the cells' DNA by dimerisation of the thymine units — which shows a maximum at 260 nm.14 It would also be necessary for the survival of such plants to screen against the possible photo-destruction of the coenzymes NAD or NADP which process has a U-V absorption peak at about 350 nm.14 It has been said14 that some algae have developed the habit of forming a calcareous coating on the outside of the cells as protection against the mutagenic effects of U-V radiation. According to Banks (quoted in 14) this has however become restrictive in the evolutionary sense and prevented the formation of multicellular thalli.
Swain also points out another possible advantage that flavonoid
14
The remaining cytological feature to be reviewed is that of the insertion of flagella on motile bodies. It seems that submicroscopic structure of motile cells such as zoospores and gametes is of increasing importance in phylogeny and studies in algal evolution. It has now been found that Klebsormidium not only has a persistent interzonal spindle during cytokinesis — like Chara and thus similar to that of higher plants, but also has zoospores which resemble motile cells of Coleochaete, Chara and the lower land plants in certain features. These Klebsormidium zoospores differ from those of many other filamentous green algal genera by having
lateral — those of other genera being anterior.8
Therefore the flagellar insertion is asymmetrical. Such a condition is found in the spermatozoids of higher land plants,1 and is unlike that found in such algae as Chlamydomonas and other volvocalean genera which have for quite some time been thought of as possible algal ancestors of land plants.11
It now remains to examine the peculiarities of sexual reproduction in Coleochaete and Chara since these are the only two Green Algae of the elite which have advanced oogamy. Let us review Coleochaete first. Oogonia are formed terminally on short lateral branches — usually displaced to one side by a branch arising from the underlying cell. The oogonium is flask-shaped with a swollen basal part containing a chloroplast which projects into a long neck (called a trichogyne) containing a colourless cytoplasm. When mature, the tip of the neck disintegrates and the basal protoplasm rounds off to form a single ovum. The antheridia are borne in clusters at the ends of branches of the projecting system — often on the same main thread of cells that bears the oogonium. The antheridia arise as small colourless outgrowths which become cut off from the parent cell; and each antheridium produces a single colourless spermatozoid oval in shape with two flagella. After fertilisation the neck of the oogonium becomes cut off by a septum and the basal part enlarges. The oogonium becomes overgrown by branching threads which originate from underlying and other adjacent cells. These threads ultimately unite to form a pseudoparenchymatous sheath around the zygote. A thick brown membrane develops around the zygospore, formed partly from the inner membranes of the surrounding threads and partly from the oogonial wall. Subsequently, cells of the threads die and the
16 ‘is the nearest approach to the simplest sporopyhte found in the liverworts’. The cells, however, are haploid — not diploid: so the resemblance to a liverwort sporophyte must be solely one of appearance and cell number. The envelope bursts and each cell gives rise to a swarmer which attaches to a substrate and becomes an ordinary plant.
The points to note in this life-cycle are
Coleochaete is heterotrichous and growth is always apical, taking place by means of a marginal meristem in the discoid types. Branching of the threads is effected either by lateral outgrowth or by dichotomous division of the apical cells.6
The Charales are characterised by having a nodal and internodal arrangement, and growth is in all cases instituted by a dome-shaped apical cell. Although Chara internodal cells are described as multinucleate, descriptions of the process of mitosis imply that it is not in fact mitosis. There is no spindle formation — merely a budding off of nuclear material of some kind or other which does not result from a true and equal partition of the chromosomal material. The use of the term ‘multinucleate’ in this context cannot be correct and should not be used. The antheridium has been described as the most complex in the Plant Kingdom and bears no resemblance to any other structure of comparable function. But the spermatozoid is biflagellate and helical in shape. The oogonium has a large central egg ensheathed by elongated spiral cells which extend beyond the fertile cell to form a crown or corona. This opens to allow the sperm to enter the oogonium and fertilise the ovum. The zygote undergoes reduction division and three of the haploid nuclei distintegrate. The remaining uninucleate cell gives rise to a protonema-like filament which grows out from the enclosed zygote. This protonema also gives rise to a filamentous rhizoid. Both are differentiated into nodes and internodes; and from the second node of the protonema the main axis of the plant arises as a lateral branch.
The important points in this life-cycle are
Marchantia.Chara, the oogonial structure (egg + jacket) arises from different cells.6
The following tabulation sets out a summary of the distribution of desirable features among the algal ‘probables’.
Of the present-day ‘probables’, Coleochaete and the Charales seem to be the leading contenders. Each of these lacks certain features which would divert it from the mainstream of evolution; but which would have been the better equipped as a potential progenitor?
…Coleochaete is classified amongst the Chaetophorales. It is unfortunate we do not have information about the presence or absence of flavonoids in this alga; but if it is anything like its taxonomic bedmate, Draparnaldia, it will lack these compounds.14 If this is the case, we can relegate Coleochaete to a penultimate position in the line of preference, since the possession of these chemicals would have been of great value in response to selection pressure in the sorting out of subjects most suitable for their new and exacting environment. We also presume its cell wall possesses cellulose. Its antheridium has no sterile jacket around it; the sperm is oval although the flagella are inserted asymmetrically. The zygote of Coleochaete on reduction division gives the usual tetrad but none of these dies. Instead, mitosis occurs to form a multicellular structure of 16-32 cells each of which ultimately gives rise to a separate swarmer — not the slightest resemblance to a filamentous protonema.
So it appears that Chara and its cohorts possess the characteristics which put them in the vanguard of the probable contenders, and from our standpoint today they are the most ‘on line’ as algal progenitors of the tracheophytes. But they, too, possess disqualifying features. One would expect any ancestral land plant to have developed the capacity for cell division in three planes to accommodate a structure such as the archegonium; but no organism in our short list of ‘probables’ practises cell division in this way — although it may be argued that the oogonia both of Chara and Coleochaete demonstrate a cell division which might be regarded as pseudo-three-dimensional. The overall morphology of the Charales precludes their existence in situations where water may be minimal or absent for short periods: one cannot imagine their having any resistance even to mild desiccation. And who could imagine an alga with cells the length of Chara's progressing on to dry land, even if its cells were encrusted with silica? There is no equivalent in the freshwater algae of a multicellular 2N sporophyte with uninucleate cells — no candidate shows even the slightest hint of such a structure; yet this type of sporophyte is a universal feature in all lower tracheophytes. The freshwater Cladophora glomerata has a multicellular 2N sporophyte; but here the cells are multinucleate. In Chara the zygote on germination undergoes reduction division to give the usual tetrad — but three nuclei disintegrate. This would hardly represent the acme of efficiency in exposing genes to environmental selection for survival of the fittest. Admittedly, the remaining uninucleate cell develops to form a protonema-like structure the like of which is not unknown in the mosses. Meiosis occurs very early in the development of the zygote and nowhere is there the possibility for the institution of a diploid generation. All our known contenders have not managed to escape the rut of haploidy and a haplontic life-cycle.
One could imagine an archegonial neck to have evolved from the corona of Chara were it not for the fact that in an archgonium not
Chara exists which could be regarded as ancestral to the canal cells. Further, in Chara the oogonial structure of egg + jacket arises from different cells: in Marchantia, the egg and sterile layer of cells which constitute the archegonium arise from the same cell. The antheridium of Chara has a sterile jacket of cells; this is not so in Coleochaete. In the latter, the sperm is oval but the flagella are inserted asymmetrically; this is not the case in Chara — whose sperm is like that of Marchantia, helical as well as having flagella inserted laterally.
In the past when reviewing evolutionary lines like these, we have considered such things as the presence of oogamy, heterotrichy and other morphological factors as the main criteria for divining evolutionary trends. But since all life is dependent on chemical reactions and their products, we must add biochemical and physiological factors (i.e. those never expressed in a morphological fashion) to our list of criteria. It is true this has been done in the past by considering the distribution pattern of photosynthetic pigments and storage products between the algae and higher plants. But now that equally fundamental and evolutionarily-ancient factors are being revealed through the further studies of biochemistry and particularly algal-cell ultra-structure, we must surely draw up new lists of criteria which will incorporate the new as well as the time-honoured. One such fundamental factor also revealed through recent bio-chemical research concerns a reaction in the area of photosynthesis. In the Calvin Cycle, the carbon dioxide-fixing enzyme is ribulose diphosphate carboxylase which under normal circumstances catalyses the addition of carbon dioxide to ribulose diphosphate. This same enzyme can however in the presence of oxygen degrade ribulose diphosphate to phosphoglycerate and phosphoglycolate. The former is easy to dispose of metabolically, the latter not quite so easy. Plants seem to have selected two ways of handling phosphoglycolate — through the action of the enzymes glycolate dehydrogenase or glycolate oxidase. Algae with a phycoplast use glycolate dehydrogenase for this purpose; whereas algae with a phragmoplast use glycolate oxidase. Both of these enzymes oxidise glycolate but by different pathways. Differences in the oxidation of glycolate may point to fundamental differences in the glycolate pathway or other photorespiration-linked processes or both.5 Associated also with this basic difference it is found that some at least of the ‘phycoplast’ algae show a very low carbon dioxide compensation point, whereas a ‘phragmoplast’ alga, Nitella shows a compensation point much closer to that of higher plants.5 The full significance of these phycoplast- and phragmoplast-associated phenomena at present escapes us; but the coincidence exists. And again, at the risk of being repetitious, one must point out that the progress of plants from water to dry land must have been achieved
Lack of information about both ends of the evolutionary bridge is such that one imagines the twain shall never meet — not even in hypothesis: and it is fatuous to indulge in further lines of argument and theoretical excursion which all too quickly can become tortuous and intricate intellectual meander. One might admit this exercise was doomed to failure from the start due to a high improbability that something conclusive would emerge; but its pursuit can surely be justified if only because, knowing this transition occurred, one must try to determine how it could have proceeded.
Evolution has in the past been thought of more in terms of a morphological continuum; but this is only a small part of the story. At rock bottom evolution incorporates a genetic continuum expressed through biochemical, physiological and ultra-structural features as well as morphological and reproductive, all subject to the testing of selection pressure — just as occurs today. As our knowledge in these areas improves, we may be better able to project into the past and apply with increased perspicacity and probability criteria which more than likely were important in evolutionary progressions, trusting of course that those features we see in today's algae are true relicts of the past.
So, as a result of continuing advances in our knowledge of biochemistry and ultrastructure, we should be in a position to define with increased accuracy current taxonomic units amongst the algae which manifest a greater probability of having those kinds of characters we would expect in algal antecedents to the higher plants.
I wish to thank Prof. H. C. Bold of the University of Texas, Austin, for criticising an early draft of this article; and also members of the Botany Department of Victoria University for their most constructive comments and suggestions.
In common with other scientific periodicals Tuatara is having difficulty in keeping up with increasing costs. One New Zealand journal, for example, recently increased its subscription from $6 to $30 per annum!
Beginning with the next volume our subscription will remain the same at $5, but the number of issues per volume will be reduced from three to two.
Sufficient articles and reviews for Volume 24, Part 1, have now been received and the issue should appear within a few months.
The 1907 expedition to the Auckland and Campbell Islands was organised by the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, now the Canterbury Branch of the Royal Society of New Zealand. The main object was to extend the magnetic survey of New Zealand but other surveys were planned at the same time. The first two relevant entries in the Minutes of the Council of the Philosophical Institute were as follows:
22 August 1906. ‘Magnetic survey: the communications from the Otago and Wellington Institutes having been read, it was decided that the proposed survey — magnetic, botanical, biological and zoological — of the outlying islands could not be carried out this year and that a subcommittee consisting of the President Mr
21 November 1906. ‘Survey of the outlying islands: the President reported that the subcommittee appointed to deal with the subject of the proposed scientific survey of the outlying islands of New Zealand had interviewed the Hon. Minister of Lands Hon.
From then on most Council meetings dealt with expedition arrangements, the main ones being transport and membership.
On 9 April, 1907, it was recorded that ‘the committee set up to further this expedition had waited upon the Minister of Marine Hon j. Hon Dr Trans. 40: 574). It was decided to telegraph the Acting Premier
On 19 July, 1907, a list of 35 proposed members of the expedition was adopted by Council together with their allocation to either Auckland or Campbell Islands. I have given this list below and added in parentheses the names of members invited later to fill vacancies. I have also added the position held by each invited member at the time of the expedition. based on information in various histories or calendars of the University Colleges, and various editions of Who's Who in New Zealand. In the third column I have given the original allocation to islands and in the fourth column the final allocation. The Minister of Lands. Hon.
The absence of Manual of the New Zealand Flora had just appeared in 1906. The minutes show that on 6 August the secretary read a telegram from him asking if the Council's invitation to visit Campbell Island could be extended to the Auckland Islands. The Council replied that it ‘hoped that Mr Cheeseman would accept the invitation as it stood’. On 16 August the Secretary read a telegram from Mr Cheeseman declining to go to Campbell Island and ‘implying that the Council had nominated him to go as Botanist where there was least chance of doing useful work’. On 15 September a letter from Mr Cheeseman was ‘received’. Fortunately Cheeseman was asked to describe the expedition collections of ferns, lycopods, and flowering plants, and his accompanying essay on the phytogeographic
With Cheeseman unavailable the Council resolved to ask Mr
Finally, an Auckland Island party of 14 was selected and a party of 12 for Campbell Island. Captain Bollons of the ‘Hinemoa’ was authorised to hire a whaleboat and crew at the Bluff and this was done. The head man was Whaitiri of Ruapuke Island (Chilton, 1909). Chilton also notes that Mr F. R. Feild assisted the Auckland Island party as a private individual, and that Messrs Chambers and Des Barres did the same for the Campbell Island party. Mr Charles Eyre. one of the ‘Dundonald’ survivors found at the Auckland Islands, was taken to Campbell Island as cook.
The following notes deal with lesser known members of the expedition. Information on well-known members can be found in obituaries in the Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of New Zealand. As well as the source cited, use was made of the published list of graduates (1870-1961).
Henry Fawsit Skey (1877-1947) was born in Dunedin and educated at Otago Boys High School. He was an Entrance and Senior Scholar at the University of Otago, graduating M.Sc. in 1899 with Honours in Physics. In May, 1899, he began work at Dunedin as assistant to Farr in the magnetic survey of New Zealand, which had begun in January. By 1907 this survey had taken them throughout the country, including crossing the Haast Pass. Skey surveyed the Chatham Islands with Kidson in March-April, 1908, and went back in 1924 with the Otago Institute expedition. He remained with the Magnetic Survey throughout his career and retired in 1940 (Farr, 1907; Kidson, 1941; Baird, 1947; Healy. 1975).
Henry Denman Cook was a Junior and Senior University Scholar and took his M.A. at Canterbury College in 1906 with double first-class honours in mathematics and electricity and his B.E. (Elect.) in 1909. He was lecturer in mathematics at Canterbury College in 1907-8. In 1910-12 he worked with Siemens Bros. Ltd. in England, and from 1912 with Boving and Company Ltd., mainly in England (Hight and Candy, 1927).
John Smaillie Tennant (1865-1958) gained his B.Sc. at the University of Otago in 1892 and his M.A. in 1899. Between the death of Professor Parker (November, 1897) and the appointment of Professor Benham he carried out the class work in zoology and botany with Mr W. Mawson (Thompson, 1920). A list of genera of fresh water algae which he collected and noted in the Dunedin district
ex officio lecturer in Education at Victoria University. In 1923 he was appointed to the newly created chair of Education and retired in 1927 to Tahunanui, Nelson. Professor G. T. S. Baylis informs me that Professor Tennant left a sum of money for the use of the Botany Department, University of Otago. Beaglehole (1949) wrote: ‘Tennant's calibre was considerable — with both literary and biological interests, he was a really well read man, and could quote Holy Writ to advantage. In courtesy he was second only to Kirk.’
Captain (later Major) Arthur Algernon Dorrien-Smith (1876-1955) of the Rifle Brigade was noted for the gardens which he inherited and developed at Tresco Abbey, Scilly Isles. His daughter, the Hon. Mrs A. E. Phillimore of Chichester, Sussex, has written to me (11 July, 1978) that Captain Dorrien-Smith was A.D.C. to one of the Governors in Australia and believes that he took part in the 1907 expedition while on leave. (It is also possible that he was returning home via New Zealand after his tour of duty.) His obituary (Anon., 1955) mentions that he was an extra A.D.C. to Lord Northcote, Governor-General of Australia in 1904-5, but I cannot find anything for 1906-7. After returning from the Auckland Islands, of which he wrote an account (Dorrien-Smith, 1908a), he stayed in the Marlborough district, and then in January, 1908, collected in the Cobb Valley with Olearia semidentata from the Chatham Islands in his consignment. They nursed the plants through the storms off Cape Horn, and then had to pack them with ice coming up through the Tropics, and by the time they got to the British Isles there were only two of the 24 plants surviving, which flourished in the Scilly Isles. However, from these two quite a number of plants have been distributed throughout the western areas of the British Isles. The famous garden of Logan in Wigtownshire, now taken over by Edinburgh Botanical Gardens, have some of these, which I saw this year. In the Scilly Isles we have some difficulty in growing them, because they do require a damp situation and are inclined suddenly to dry out.’
Alexander Moncrieff Finlayson was an Entrance and Senior Scholar at the University of Otago, gaining his M.Sc. in 1907 with double first-class honours. He was the author of four geological papers in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute in 1907 and 1908. Finlayson was an Associate of the Otago School of Mines and was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Science Scholarship. After enlisting overseas and attaining the rank of lieutenant, he was killed in the Great War (Thompson, 1920).
Mr Robert Browne is listed as a member of the Otago Institute from 1905 to 1929, at which time membership lists ceased in the Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute. His addresses were Stratford (1905), Hawera (1910), Technical School, Hawera (1911-18) and c/o P.O. Morrinsville (1919-20). On 11 September, 1906. a paper by Browne was presented to the Otago Institute ‘On the occurrence of Geonemertes in the North Island’, which shows that he was also in the Tokanui district, Southland, in 1905 (Trans. and Proc. N.Z. Inst., 39: 546).
Mr Edgar Ravenswood Waite came from the Australian Museum, Sydney, in 1906 to succeed Professor Hutton as curator of the Canterbury Museum. He took up the position of Director of the South Australian Museum in April, 1914 (Scarlett, 1971).
Mr George R. Marriner (1879-1910) was the youngest son of James Marriner of Spreydon. He was born at Gravesend, Kent, and the family came to New Zealand in early 1880. After leaving West Christchurch High School Marriner became assistant to Professor Dendy and later to Professor Chilton (Anon., 1910). He did not complete his degree (Hight and Candy, 1927) but was the author of seven papers in The Transactions of the New Zealand Institute and of a monograph on the kea. In 1908 Marriner was appointed Curator of the Wanganui Museum, but died on 25 February, 1910, at the Wanganui Hospital after a short illness. Marriner was a Fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society and New Zealand representative on the Council of the Australasian Ornithological Union.
James Boxer Mayne was born in Cornwall and educated in Christchurch. After leaving school he began teaching at West Christchurch School. He began classes at Canterbury College in 1876 and graduated B.A. in 1891. He was headmaster at Ashburton (1892-97). St Albans (1897-1907) and Sydenham (1907-12), and then inspector of schools until 1921 (Hight and Candy, 1927). The centennial histories of the latter two schools give no further information. However, Miss Helga Mayne tells me that her father was a keen amateur microscopist, possessed ‘several’ microscopes, studied bacteria in Christchurch water, and was interested in plant diseases. At weekends he helped Dendy and later Chilton with microscope work at the College. Mayne joined the Philosophical Institute on 5 May, 1897, and from 1898 to at least 1908 was a member of Council. He was vice-president in 1900, 1901, 1903 and 1904 and president in
Charles Eyre described the wreck of the ‘Dundonald’ to Crosby-Smith and this account was published in The Lyttelton Times on 2 December. Crosby-Smith added that Charles Eyre ‘is an intelligent young fellow, twenty-one years of age, having just completed his term of apprenticeship. He is genial and full of humour and can look on the comical side of the situation although very deeply impressed with its sad aspect. He amused the party when being plied with questions by saying that he had had eight months of a gentleman's life hunting big game.’
Publicity for the expedition included three excellent articles in The Lyttelton Times. Cockayne (1907a) outlined past scientific work on the islands while Speight (1907) described the geological problems and Farr (1907) the magnetic survey of New Zealand. On 12 November there was an editorial on ‘The Southern Islands’.
Members travelled south on the express from Christchurch to Bluff. Each member was asked to pay £5 towards the cost of the expedition, but this was refunded when a government subsidy of £135 was placed on the Supplementary Estimates through the efforts of Mr
The three photographs are taken from the extensive collection of 1907 expedition negatives held in the library of the Canterbury Museum. In 1968, when seeking to identify some of the Auckland Island group (Fig. 1), I was referred by Dr
In a collection of papers belonging to the late Dr
Extracts from
As instructed by the Hon. The Minister I joined the ‘Hinemoa’ at the Bluff with the other members of the expedition.
A start was made for the Islands at 9 a.m. on 14th. November. Port Pegasus, Stewart Island was reached early in the afternoon and an expedition was made to the hills where a most instructive time was spent and considerable collecting done in the few short hours available.
In a swamp area about 250 feet above sea with a subsoil of gravel and boulder were found such rare plants as Ehrharta thomsoni (a grass), Oreobolus pectinatus, Abrotanella, Actinotus, Dracophyllum rosmarinifolium, D. politum and
A return to the vessel was made in the evening. At 9 p.m. the ‘Hinemoa’ sailed for the Snares which was reached next morning at 6 a.m.
15th November. The whole day was spent here and the main island thoroughly explored. Samples of soil, rock, and specimens of grasses and plants for the State Farms were collected and notes taken of the extremely interesting flora. The manner in which two grasses monopolize the grass meadows of the island is most curious. Poa litorosa is the most abundant forming tussocks from one to three feet high. In many parts of the island the best means of progression is by the aid of these tussocks with small trunks. In swampy patches one can easily step from one to another, but if one falls in between one has to battle with passive mud and active penguins. The island
Poa litorosa which is, by the by, not a pure formation but is intermixed here and there with patches of Poa foliosa, a most handsome and succulent grass which I think should be given a trial on the Experimental Farm Grass Gardens. This species does not form well defined tussocks but lies together more with the habit of a Hierochloe (N.Z. sweet vernal grass).
In the section mentioned 12 feet were exposed, the top 18 inches to two feet was composed of leaves matted together. tunnelled in every direction by the sea birds, beneath this was peaty soil containing much undecomposed leafy matter to a depth about two feet, below this was a layer of pure peat which extended at least eight feet further down. I regret that the time at our disposal did not allow for any sinking to ascertain the depth of the peat in various places. If however the above is anything like a fair sample of the depth of the peat on the island, the grasses will probably rely on bird excreta to supply certain plant food. Should this hypothesis prove correct it will be one of the most interesting cases of symbiosis yet placed on record.
The birds observed on the Snares were Penguin and Skua Gull, Black Robin, Fern Bird, Snipe, Black & White Tit and the introduced Thrush. Blackbird and Linnet. Many sea lions were encountered in the bush and on the shore. A sample of their dung was procured for analysis.
Leaving the Snares at nightfall the ‘Hinemoa’ reached Port Ross early next morning. 16th. November, and received the first intimation of the wreck of the four masted bark ‘Dundonald’ on Disappointment Island in March last. After attending to the wants of the survivors in the depot the ‘Hinemoa’ steamed to Carnley Harbour which was reached in a few hours. I landed with the Auckland Island party and remained there during its stay. The remainder of the day was passed in fixing the camp.
On 17th. November an early start was made and a track cut through the bush and scrub at the rear of the boat depot. Camp Cove. The subalpine scrub at 400 ft. made our advance extremely toilsome, the thick masses of Suttonia divaricata scrub had to be cut through before any progress could be made. Throughout our stay on the island this scrub was one of the worst drawbacks we had to encounter; from four to six feet high it is quite impassable with reasonable exertion; walking on the top can be undertaken only by a very light man. Only with the severest exertion can it be pushed aside to enable
Danthonia bromoides have pushed through the scrub and in descending a hill it is sometimes possible to jump from clump to clump without sinking up to the knees. This grass of which live specimens were taken for experiment is very like the snow grass (Danthonia raoulii) of the N.Z. Alps. The young portions of D. bromoides are very succulent and sweet and would, I think, have a considerable nutritive value if eaten by man. This observation may not be without value in view of the scarcity of edible vegetables on the islands. The attractiveness of the young growing parts of
Danthonia bromoides possibly accounts for the fact that where sheep browse on it in the Campbell Islands the species soon dies out. Higher up on this hill the vegetation was almost exclusively D. bromoides and samples of this upland grasslands were taken for analysis. Copious notes of the vegetation were made as the hill was ascended. Rain fell during the greater part of the day and it was deemed inadvisable to top the hill owing to the increasing fog and mist. A return was made to Camp Cove which, after a further struggle through the wet scrub and bush was reached before dark. The party consisted of Dr Cockayne. Capt. Dorrien-Smith, Messrs Tennant. Field and self. Mr Field did excellent service in cutting a track for the party.
18th. November. It having been decided to establish a subsidiary camp on Adams Island the boat's crew was employed to row our party. consisting of the same members as yesterday, to the Island. As a stiff S.Wester was blowing, the crossing of Carnley Strait was effected only with difficulty, and all were soon wet through with the salt water that came aboard.
A camp was formed somewhat to the north of Sealer's Camp with a good creek on one side and a This camp was no doubt in the bay now called Magnetic Bay which was the site of the expedition's Magnetic Survey III station. The description of creek and vegetation matches this bay as seen in 1966.Pleurophyllum meadow on the other.
As we neared the top several severe hail and snow showers compelled us to take shelter behind rocks. The wind was bitterly cold. Laden with soils, plants and notes we finally made our way back to camp about dark.
19th. November. Adams Island. In the morning, in spite of a drizzling rain and light wind. Mr Field and I made our way round the point and ascended the hill above Sealer's Camp. We were lucky in striking a burnt area (on which the vegetation had not reappeared to any extent) at 200 to 300 ft. This burn must be several years old and shows the difference between this land and that of Stewart Island, where, after clearing, it is soon choked by a rank growth of under-scrub which, if unchecked, becomes more impassable than the original forest. It is interesting to note that the shrub Coprosma foetidissima which is so great a pest in the South Island clearings reappears here but only in depressed patches. It is evidently unable to make much headway against the S.W. gales which continually blow in these islands. Another weed indicative of recent clearing was
As we proceeded up the hill the weather rapidly became worse; torrents of rain soon drenched us to the skin. However we pushed forward well up on to the Danthonia meadows where, with frozen fingers Mr Field endeavoured to photograph a solitary albatross on the nest while I dug down into the soil for samples. Many specimens of grasses were obtained under the rocks. Generally speaking this spur is more sparsely covered with vegetation up to the grass meadow line. In many places on the side, pieces of the hill seemed to have slipped away, leaving bare patches. The beautiful blue flowered Veronica benthami was found growing to a greater perfection on this spur than in any other locality seen on the Island, probably owing to the more sheltered situation.
Late in the afternoon we made our way back to the camp and found the boat ready to take us to Camp Cove, so, striking camp, we sailed home without getting very much wetter than we had been all day.
The birds observed at Adams Island were the Flightless Duck, Parakeets, Snipe, Bell Birds, Black & White Tit, Auckland Island Shag, and Black Backed Gull. Sea lions were often round the camp and seemed to have a partiality for the pebbly beach and Pleurophyllum meadow.
20th. November. At 7 a.m. with the boat's crow, Capt. Dorrien-Smith, Dr Cockayne, Messrs Tennant, Speight, Collyns, Finlayson and self, left Camp Cove Depot to establish a subsidiary camp at N. Arm, Carnley Harbour. We landed in a bay near McLure Head Speight and Finlayson (1909) refer to volcanic dykes ‘on the end of McLure Head’.
After a tiresome pull of about 10 miles we passed Figure of Eight Island, reached the head of N. Arm and camped on dry ground in the rata forest.
After fixing a camp and lunching, the flat at the head of the inlet was explored; numerous sheep tracks were observed. Here I collected some grasses which, as they were not in flower, I was unable to identify, and others of some rarity for the Experimental Farms. On this flat were noticed a few introduced weeds and grasses viz: Poa annua, Poa pratensis and Cerastium (chickweed). On returning to camp we discovered a good track cut through the rata forest in
21st. November. Making an early start we followed the track from the salt meadow and made rapid progress for a mile or so. Occasionally the track was lost owing to the rata forest giving place to Danthonia tussocks where the track was ill defined. Presently we decided to cross the creek which lay on our left. So abandoning search for the track we found ourselves on a fairly open boggy piece of land which was easy to traverse. A mile or two further saw us on the top of the saddle and with a glorious view of the western coast and Disappointment Island.
The day was now clear and fine and the awful nature of the coast could be well seen. Cliffs about 1500 ft rose sheer out of the water. One could look over and see the waves beating at the foot, leaving no foothold on which the unfortunate castaway could land. A few fur seals were observed lying on the ledges at the foot of the cliffs. Here was the scene of much slaughter of seals in bygone days when the sealers were let down by ropes over the perpendicular rocks to the ledges on which the animals rested. The seals were then butchered, their skins hoisted to the top and borne across four or five miles of country on men's shoulders to the N. Arm. The Maoris say that there are only two places where one may land on this coast, and it is easy to believe them. We had now crossed the island from coast to coast without any difficulty arising, right through the zone which is most dreaded on this Island, the Suttonia or scrub zone. To further explorers who wish to ascend such mountains as are in the vicinity, and the cliffs along the west coast generally, I would recommend this route as the easiest. A permanent camp might be fixed on the right of the salt meadow at the end of N. Arm where there is dry ground, plenty of firewood and good water. I am confident that the elevated part of the whole island could be worked from this base without much track cutting.
After doing considerable collecting and note-taking on the edge of the cliffs we turned up a fine creek where we found that struggling over boulders was preferable to climbing the huge tussocks of Now Mount Raynal.Danthonia. After ascending for some distance we made for a spur and on reaching this found walking comparatively easy. Flat Topped Mountain
Having decided to take a short cut to the camp which was just below us we passed through some fine fairly level stretches of
Danthonia tussock and heard cries which we attributed to sheep. Just above the camp the spaces between the Danthonia tussock were ploughed up in all directions by pigs (although we saw none). The object of their rooting appeared to be either Bulbinella rossii or Pleurophyllum hookeri roots. Near here we struck one track which appeared to head off in a southerly direction possibly towards Musgraves camp. On the flat at the top of the head of N. Arm we could see five or six sheep browsing but they soon made off and when we reached the spot none was to be seen. It may be observed that no lambs were seen throughout our expedition though the cries we heard on the slopes of Flat Topped Mountain may have been those of a lamb.
We were now about half a mile above the camp and commenced to descend through the scrub breast high which concealed all traces of gullies, logs and pitfalls of various kinds. In the next few hours by dint of brute force we managed to scramble, push, crawl under or roll over the intervening half mile. Owing to the steepness of the declivity and the fact that gravity was on our side we, though greatly impeded by specimens, finally reached the bottom.
22nd. Nov. Mr Collyns (whom I must thank for his assistance). and I, set out for the hills to the north of the saddle. On the way we took samples of the soil in the flat to a depth of three feet, which necessitated digging a trench. A sample of salt meadow soil was also taken at the marge.
When well up the hill the relief boat from Camp Cove, with the provisions which we were short of, was espied a long way beyond Figure of Eight Island, pulling against the wind toilsomely up the inlet. We accordingly hastened back to camp, and after a good lunch which we were much in need of, having been on short rations for the last two meals, leaving the party of biologists and physicists in charge of the camp, we packed up and started for Camp Cove which we reached by evening. But only after an exciting sail as the wind and sea were rapidly rising did we reach our destination. Our experience of the water of this inlet gave us some idea of its treacherous nature towards sailing boats. On our journey up we had noticed puffs of wind coming off the hills, whirling the water up in waterspouts and tearing along at a great rate.
23rd. Nov. The day was spent in camp attending to samples and taking specimens of soil from land adjacent to the camp. Along the littoral, clay was sought for, above the fine grained basalt and below the peaty soil. One only found decomposed rock and of that only about half an inch which was lying directly on the unweathered basalt. If this is usually the case plants may have their roots directly lying on the rock and deriving their mineral matter largely from it without its being previously weathered into clay. It therefore seemed desirable to take complete suites of specimens for analysis showing soil, decomposed rock and bed rock, and this was done.
24th. November. An expedition to Masked Island was made today in which, as the Island was but a few minutes pull from Camp Cove, most of the expedition, with the exception of the geologists who had gone to Musgrave Peninsula, joined. Here I had a good opportunity of continuing the study of the littoral soil similar to that of yesterday with much greater success.
On a small spur covered with Poa foliosa and Stilbocarpa polaris, with a southerly aspect, was exposed by trenching, first eighteen inches of brownish top soil with numerous roots throughout, then eighteen inches of black soil with few roots, finally a mat of roots resting directly on the rock beneath. Samples were taken for analysis of all specimens as before.
On the N.W. side of the island Poa litorosa was observed growing in drooping festoons nine feet long. The adaptability and variability in habit of this grass as seen on the Snares and this group is most astonishing.
In the afternoon with Messrs Tennant, Field and Page I ascended the hill above the boat depot, Camp Cove. At Skua Gull Flat the soil was sampled in several places. To this point several sea lion tracks lead from the boat bay and ascended through the rata forest thereby rendering progress for us easier. The flat is rather curiously cut into lanes which are caused by the alternation of rata forest and Danthonia meadow. These lanes are generally parallel with the prevailing winds. Our way up to the Suttonia scrub was therefore fairly open. After some struggling the Suttonia was passed and the Danthonia meadow reached. The top was soon reached and a good series of photographs taken by Mr Page. Splendid views extended in every direction particularly of the rocky entrance to Carnley Strait. Round the top some interesting grasses were collected and one rare Poa of which good roots were taken. We were now at an altitude of 1350 feet and had rapidly to descend in order to gain camp before nightfall. Coming down I took samples of the Danthonia meadow soil which should prove of service to The Director of Rothamsted Experimental Station who is investigating the origin of nitrogen in soils and for this purpose required virgin black soils. The taking of these samples with only the light instruments I was able to carry somewhat delayed us and the twilight was rapidly deepening when the Suttonia belt was entered at a somewhat different point from our exit. After an hour's hard struggle, and wet to the thighs with bog water, we finally managed to get out into the rata forest where progression became less difficult. Climbing a rata one of the party received the directions from another who had pushed ahead and Skua Gull Flat was reached none too soon. We reached camp at 9 p.m. well satisfied with our day's work.
25th. November: The day broke with a slight S.W. wind and drizzling mist and rain. Having obtained permission from the executive The Rules of the Expedition (Minutes, 15 October, 1907) include the following: 1. An executive committee of three, to be elected by the members of each party, will administer the rules. Each committee to elect its own chairman. 4. As the Magnetic Survey is the primary object of the expedition, the magnetic staff will have priority use of the boat when occasion requires. This name was approved by the New Zealand Geographic Board in 1967 but without an apostrophe.Pleurophyllum meadows of Adams Island for the special purpose of examining the soil. Capt. Dorrien-Smith, Dr Cockayne, Messrs Tennant, Speight and Finlayson accompanied me. We arrived at Fairchild's gardenDanthonia tussock. It is thus possible at this point to gain easy access to the hill tops without passing through any forest or scrub.
The vegetation consists largely of Ligusticum latifolium, the other plants being Pleurophyllum speciosum, P. criniferum, Carex appressa and
Why these beautiful herbaceous plants should at this particular point come down to sea level in such profusion may possibly be explained after the examination of the soil has been completed. The taking of these samples occupied considerable time after which I worked up towards the west coast and here was delighted to find an absolutely pure formation of Poa litorosa beaten down by the wind into curious lenticular patches. This grass again manifesting its adaptability, and its ability to survive under adverse conditions has here adopted a close form of growth quite unlike its usual tufted appearance. A sample of the soil was taken for further investigation.
An early return was made to Camp Cove in order to enable the geologists to examine the Adams Island moraines, but on arrival opposite there at 4 p.m. they decided to postpone their attempt.
26th. November. I obtained the use of the boat's crew and proceeded to Skua Gull Flat to cut a trench as deep as possible to ascertain the depth of peat. A trench was soon cut with the aid of four stalwart Maoris to a depth of 8 feet and 12 feet long. At a depth of 2 ft. 6 ins. roots were found to be massed together, this I take as a further example of that phenomena previously observed of the roots massing directly on the rock. In the first 16 inches the soil was brown and the roots sparsely distributed but at the next fourteen inches the soil was brownish yellow and the roots many and matted together. The next five ft. six inches was bluish clay with fragments of rock — the roots of Danthonia bromoides were in one place near a tussock
Hastening back after a hurried lunch we packed up and embarked. The ‘Hinemoa’ then steamed for Norman Inlet where she anchored for the night.
27th. November. After a four hour run ashore from 4 to 8 a.m. we again embarked and steamed for Enderby Island which was reached at 2 p.m.
The most interesting point about this Island was the large sandy beach, the finest in the Islands, composed very largely of shell sand. In view of the future agricultural development of the Islands, it should be pointed out that here are huge deposits of carbonate of lime already ground and ready to apply to the soil. When burnt this calcareous sand would make mortar for building purposes. Near by the depot and scattered about were numerous evidences of former settlement. English grasses, clover and the common daisy were fairly plentiful. A considerable portion of the coast was traversed and it was observed that the cattle are rapidly eating out the native tussock Poa litorosa. Not much time was given for exploration as we had to re-embark at 6 p.m. The night was spent at Port Ross. The birds observed at Enderby Island were Flightless Duck, Skua Gull, Shag and Black Backed Gull.
28th. November. An early start was made by the ‘Hinemoa’ and the wind being favourable a landing was early effected on Disappointment Island on the western side of Auckland. The flora on this Island, though nowhere differing in species from that of the mainland is different in important particulars. There is no rata forest and no scrub worth mentioning. The Suttonia is here reduced to a harmless nonentity. The only scrub of any size exists only in a few patches near the cliffs and consists entirely of Veronica elliptica. It was from this wood that the castaways made their famous boat and found their firewood and the rafters of their huts. The vegetation is chiefly
Dr Cockayne and I did not leave the Island until the last boat came off bringing the party of castaways which had gone to the west side to bring the body of the first mate to its last resting place at Pt. Ross Cemetery. We had thus ample time to look about us but our efforts were considerably retarded by the rain which poured down on us steadily for three hours. Near the landing, the only one on the Island, the castaways pointed out to us a roughly trimmed post driven into the earth. We hauled it up and found the end undoubtedly trimmed by an axe. The post was about six feet long and about four inches in diameter. At one end a splinter had been broken off but there was no sign of nails or of a board having been attached. The mystery is who put it there and for what purpose? Near by here, a little distance inland, a huge blowhole with perpendicular sides was quite concealed by vegetation until one is just on the brink. The sea can be seen roaring up beneath. We returned to Port Ross that evening and attended the funeral of the Chief Mate of the ‘Dundonald’.
29th. November. Before the ‘Hinemoa’ sailed we had a hurried trip ashore in the vicinity of Port Ross depot. Our landing was greatly facilitated by the excellent jetty constructed by the castaways at the depot of rustic timber. Samples of soil were taken for analysis. A hurried examination was made of the vegetation on the point, where many introduced plants are growing but apparently not increasing to any extent. A large patch of gorse bush was in flower but no seedlings were observed. The mainland Acaena (piripia or bidibid) was here growing with the local species. Several grasses including sweet vernal and lastly Phormium tenax (N.Z. Flax). A number of huge clusters of this 8 to 10 feet high were seen but no seedlings were observed.
The fertilization of the flax flowers is generally supposed to be dependent on honey eating birds such as the tui and bell bird. Although bell birds were numerous on the Island I only saw one tui (at North Arm).
The soils of the Auckland group are almost entirely humus or peaty in character, varying in depth from 1 foot at the littoral to several feet as one proceeds inland. Underlying the peat is probably clay over the greater part of the main Island. The time allowed on the Island was so short that very little trenching could be accomplished, but where this was done, clay was found in every case. In any attempt to elucidate soil problems account must be taken of the vegetation existing on the soil in question, in order if possible to correlate changes in the soil composition with changes in flora. A short description of the main floral features may therefore here follow.
Starting from the littoral as we proceed inland and upward the vegetation may be briefly described as follows: — First there is a Fringe of Asplenium obtusatum, Lomaria dura and other ferns then a thin belt of
The Dracophyllum is a good firewood, and its twigs and dead grass-like leaves are an excellent fire kindler, a point useful to bear
Immediately above the fern and Dracophyllum fringe commences the rata, Metrosideros lucida, which must be regarded as the main forest tree of the Island. It extends from sea level up to about 400 feet, being in greatest abundance and strength in the first 200 feet, gradually giving place to subalpine scrub and tussock,
A discussion of the soil characters must necessarily be postponed until the analyses of the samples collected are completed.
The Auckland and Adams Islands are mainly the product of successive lava flows which give the country a very characteristic appearance resulting in many flat-topped hills and mountains, perpendicular cliffs and dark extremely hard rocky shores. The
Mr Speight has discovered granite on Musgrave Peninsula while it is probable that Disappointment Island is old sedimentary formation. The time at my disposal was not long enough to make any systematic examination of the soils and subsoils of these places. which is much to be regretted.
The main Island has proved a failure as a sheep run, it being impossible to muster the animals. It is yet to be seen whether the remaining sheep will increase.
If the sheep could be pastured on Danthonia areas it would probably be only a matter of time when the Danthonia would be eaten out, and then what is to take its place?
It is highly improbable that any ordinary pasture grass could adapt itself successfully to the peaty soil. Cattle would probably do better on the Danthonia but the country is so boggy that they would probably ultimately be worse off than the sheep.
The tussocks on Enderby Island, on which the cattle do so well, are Poa litorosa which does not occur to any great extent on the main island. Enderby Island is, moreover, fairly flat and free from bogs.
Dismissing the Pastoral industry we turn to Agriculture and in this connection I have to advise that some experiments be made in flax growing on the Islands. The soil appears to be eminently suited for Phormium in places, and the plants put in by the early sealers are said to have increased considerably. It would be easy to plant a few patches in suitable fairly open swampy country at both high and low levels and watch the effect. Good seed could also be scattered about. I would be pleased to take charge of any experiments and report progress from time to time.
A great want is a track traversing the whole Island from say Cape Bristow to Erebus Cove with branches leading off to North Arm and Norman Inlet. The cutting of such a track would present little difficulty and would be of great value to castaways and to visitors to the island. The greater part of it would be through tussock country, and only at Norman Inlet would much bush cutting be necessary.
It is not generally realized what a great asset the Dominion possesses in these islands as an attraction to the robuster class of tourist and the man of science. The climate is mild and equable and though tempests rage with unmitigated violence outside, there is ample shelter on the lee of the rata forest which clothes the slopes. One realizes at every turn that one is in close touch with nature. The tameness of the animals on the shore and waters, the numerous sea and land birds, the creeping life of the woods, the unique plants
A lighthouse on the Islands could be worked in conjunction with an Observing Station where visiting scientists could study and record. Experiments could be carried on with Flax, Paspalum and other staples. The forms of life could be better protected and the fur seal saved from extinction at the hands of the poacher. Lastly the castaway, escaping a watery grave, would meet with a ready and comforting welcome instead of having to subsist on half cooked Mollyhawk and Stilbocarpa for six months.
The ‘Hinemoa’ arrived back at the Bluff on the afternoon of 30 November, Articles were soon written by Cockayne (1907b, c) about Disappointment Island and about the Snares and Auckland Islands, and the Auckland Islands were also described by Dorrien-Smith (1908a). The major results of the expedition appeared in the two well-known volumes on ‘The Subantarctic Islands of New Zealand’ edited by Chilton (1909).
I am indebted to Mr J. E. C. Shearer (librarian) and Professor B. H. Howard (President) for permission to study and quote the Minutes of the Canterbury Branch. Royal Society of New Zealand; and to Dr